Lottery Discussion Answers Essay

Shirley Jackson, â€Å"The Lottery† – Discussion and Analysis Questions Answer the following questions in complete sentences on your own paper. Provide quotations (with page/line numbers) from the story to support your answers. 1. Why has Jackson chosen common people for her characters? Could she have chosen characters from other levels of sophistication with the same effect? What is the irony of the tone of this story? 2. What seems to have been the original purpose of the lottery? What do people believe about it? 3. Is it important that the original paraphernalia for the lottery had been lost? What do you suppose the original ceremony was like? Why have some of the villages given up this practice? Why hasn’t this one? 4. What is the significance of Tessie’s final scream, â€Å"It isn’t fair, it isn’t right†? What aspect of the lottery does she explicitly challenge; what aspect goes unquestioned? 5. This is a different sort of story when you read it for the second time. What elements (such as Mrs. Hutchinson’s attempt to have her daughter, Eva, draw with the family) might take on a different meaning the second time through? 6. Some critics insist that the story has an added symbolic meaning. Do you agree? If so, what is Shirley Jackson trying to tell us about ourselves? (Hint: Consider that this story was written during the height of the rise of Communism and the Soviet Union.) 7. Is the lottery a collective act of murder? Is it morally justified? Is tradition sufficient justification for such actions? How would you respond to cultures that are different from ours that perform â€Å"strange† rituals? 8. Describe the point of view of the story. How does the point of view affect what we know about the situation? How does it preserve the story’s suspense? Answers to Discussion Questions 1. Why has Jackson chosen common people for her characters? Could she have chosen characters from other levels of sophistication with the same effect? What is the irony of the tone of this story? By choosing common people, Jackson is attempting to have the general reader relate to the grotesque situation at hand. The dangers of blind allegiance to tradition become more â€Å"close to home† when an average, small-town American population is the center of the action. It becomes more general and all-applicable. (Lines 1-17) 2. What seems to have been the original purpose of the lottery? What do people believe about it? The original purpose of the lottery seems to have been some twisted sort of rain dance ritual. As Old Man Warner explains, the old saying used to exclaim, â€Å"Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon† (line 122). It takes on an air of Aztec/ritualistic sacrifice, that by performing the blood ritual and sacrificing one, the needs of the majority will be met. If the ritual is not followed, society will collapse – or so the townsfolk believe. 3. Is it important that the original paraphernalia for the lottery had been lost? What do you suppose the original ceremony was like? Why have some of the villages given up this practice? Why hasn’t this one? The loss of the original ceremonial paraphernalia is significant, as it suggests that the original meaning and reasons for the lottery have been lost to time. It is a ritual with no true purpose, other than that of blind allegiance to tradition. Some villages presumably have matured beyond this ritual, but this one has not. 4. What is the significance of Tessie’s final scream, â€Å"It isn’t fair, it isn’t right†? What aspect of the lottery does she explicitly challenge; what aspect goes unquestioned? There are two ways to approach this question. 1) From an in-character perspective, Tessie is objecting to the fact that she is the subject of the sacrifice, having been the â€Å"winner† of the lottery. She doesn’t want to die, and is protesting merely the fact that she has to die, not that people die in general. 2) From an authorial / reader response perspective, Jackson challenges the reader to question the idea of conformity and blind allegiance to tradition. If we don’t know why we observe a specific tradition, perhaps we should question its usefulness. Besides, it’s good to question and analyze. 5. This is a different sort of story when you read it for the second time. What elements (such as Mrs. Hutchinson’s attempt to have her daughter, Eva, draw with the family) might take on a different meaning the second time through? Tessie’s attempt to have her daughter draw with the family is a half-baked (and somewhat heartless) attempt to have a larger pool of â€Å"winners† (victims) to draw from. While reading, it sort of sounds like she wants an extra chance to win some money or something of that nature. In reality, she is trying to provide more of a buffer between herself and being murdered. 6. Some critics insist that the story has an added symbolic meaning. Do you agree? If so, what is Shirley Jackson trying to tell us about ourselves? (Hint: Consider that this story was written during the height of the rise of Communism and the Soviet Union.) She is providing a symbol of societies such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, where great atrocities are committed under the indifferent watch of tradition-oriented conformists. She is trying to tell us that we should be  guided by our moral compass, not merely by the expectations of society. If something is unjust or wrong, we should stand up against it. 7. Is the lottery a collective act of murder? Is it morally justified? Is tradition sufficient justification for such actions? How would you respond to cultures that are different from ours that perform â€Å"strange† rituals? Effectively, the lottery is by definition a collective act of murder, regardless of the reason it is held. Its existence does, however, beg the question of whether tradition (and, by extension, moral relativism) supersedes any sort of universal morality. Is killing wrong no matter what, or does its intended purpose – prosperity for the many at the expense of the few – justified? Regardless of the answer, Jackson’s message is that doing anything simply because it’s â€Å"what always has been done† is not an acceptable approach to life. We should question and analyze our traditions, and understand why we continue to observe them. 8. Describe the point of view of the story. How does the point of view affect what we know about the situation? How does it preserve the story’s suspense?

East Asian Art Essay

One mark of how developed a culture is its art forms. The arts are a large aspect or subdivision of a culture. So much of a culture’s beliefs and traditions are reflected of expressed in various art forms. Art is made by an artist, an artist’s way of seeing and interpreting things are dictated by the culture of the society of which he is a part of; this is the relationship of the arts and culture. They have a link that cannot be severed. Ancient art forms that are reflective of a societal culture can include architecture, calligraphy, culinary arts, dance, drawing/ painting, fashion, music, language, literature, sculpture, crafts, and theatre; all these are represent the rich culture of a society. Some new and modern art forms that have been brought upon by technology include film and photography. As for East Asia, in geographical context, it is the region of Asia covering 12, 000, 000 square kilometers, which is 28% of the whole Asian continent. Countries in the East Asian territory currently include Mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. East Asia being the home of some of the first great and influential cultures and civilizations, their ancient works of art would be a good area of study to understand how their culture developed. During the ancient times, the major societies that served as the cultural roots of the region are China, Japan and Korea. Understanding how their culture began through the events that transpired in the first 500 years of the Common Era that contributed to the development of their art can give us an insight on what their culture was and how the present culture of the region came to be.

Overall, Canada is a good country in which to live Essay

Overall, Canada is a good country in which to live - Essay Example Canada, despite a multilingual society where more than one language is understood and spoken uphold equality among the Canadian residents, and this is a common act practiced in Canada as they are taught moral values and concerns towards each other. Canadian populations have migrated into a situation of linguistic and ethnic subordination; there normally is no difficulty since the option of migration back to their home country provides a safety valve. Although Canada possesses a wide range of sociological problems involved in the contact between racial and ethnic groups with different mother tongues, but still despite ecological propositions about the nature of linguistic pluralism Government maintain such societies, who work toward unilingualism. The framework is then applied to the Canadian setting, focusing on two related but conceptually distinct events: first, the forces which determine how groups will adapt to the presence of others who speak different tongues; second, the long- run factors which determine whether pluralism will be maintained or evolve into a unilingual society. Most provinces provide only limited training in French, ensuring that all French Canadians will acquire English in the schools. In several instances, for example, French-language instruction can be made available up to an hour per day in the early grades. On the other hand, French is widely available as a second language in high schools and sometimes in earlier grades. Canada appreciates a unilingual society that is the main reason why Canadian children are being taught equality and brotherhood at elementary level. They are well groomed and well mannered. Canadian Government place high value on parenting with a polite attitude towards children. Canadian provisions include all the basic necessities for the child’s healthy physical, mental and psychological growth. Even certain provisions start before birth of a

Business decision making - reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business decision making - reflection - Essay Example For example, we also kept in mind the availability of housing for hospital staff. Even if site A would seem less costly to develop; still, we cannot decide simply based on costs. Quality must always be part of the decision process because a hospital is not just about medical equipment, it is more on providing services to the patients as well as to the employees. We have to choose from the best possible alternative that can reward us with the greatest pay-off coupled with minimal issues. For this reason, we arrived at Site B because even the insects would receive some benefits that we have planned. The first stage that we went through is identifying the problems and problem definition. Using the rational model, we need to properly determine what are the potential causes of problems for each site that we have to consider. In a rational decision model, we have to look into all possible alternatives so every bit of information that we can get hold would prove useful. When we were identif ying the problems, we decided to set out the criteria which were required. Each site would have to meet these criteria in order to be chosen as the optimum site. The basic criteria were: †¢ Good access points to and from the hospital. †¢ Produce a 15 – 20% return on shareholders’ investments. †¢ Easy to obtain staff, particularly of the high-skilled variety. †¢ Aesthetically pleasing. †¢ Gaining political support. †¢ Replacing the older hospitals in the region For example, we really needed to verify if Site A was a hazardous dump because there were hear says about the site. The only way to confirm such beliefs was to objectively make an investigation of the facts, so there is no room for mistakes. Although the group members were keen about the information gathering process, we observed that each member became very analytical. Everyone wanted to provide the best possible solution to the point that we became obsessive-compulsive. In fact, we also became directive in approaching one another especially when expressing our viewpoints verbally, at times, quite harshly. Our personal commitments were subdued in the interest of choosing the best decision. This rather slowed-down the decision making process because we often argued at the claims we are presenting during group meetings. The good thing is that we have some members who act as facilitators and reminded us about the value of team-work. When we have to sit down and look at the widest range of alternatives, we need to start considering not only the technical or financial elements involved but other important factors as well. We have to consider the political element, since we don’t want any protests that would involve bad publicity. However, aside from looking at possible moral issues, each of us has to change our attitude and look within ourselves. The team leader involved everyone in participative decision-making and allowed us to present solutions that are c reative – like relocating the animals to another place like what Saintburys Supermarket accomplished. We knew that if all of us helped one another in choosing the best alternative, the whole group would benefit from such a decision. We wanted a win-win outcome that would have the least possible disadvantage to all stakeholders. For one, we considered the political factor by knowing if our decision would have any effect on the campaign of MP Thompson. Furthermore, we liked the idea that it would not

Engneering Disasters Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Engneering Disasters - Assignment Example Engineering is a discipline that applies both scientific and technological principles to help meet various needs of the people. The demands to engineering may include transportation infrastructure, buildings and constructions, aircrafts and computers hardware and software production (Liao & Okazaki, 2009). Nevertheless, the demands on engineering requires that the needs of the people are met both efficiently and cost effectively, meaning that the cost reduction principle is very important for any engineering project. It is due to the cost reduction principle that diverse and substitute materials for various engineering projects such as construction, aircraft light-weight and computer components have been developed. However, the need to reduce the cost of an engineering project may result in the application of flawed shortcuts and design fabrications, which in the end results in engineering disasters that are too costly both in terms of the lives lost and the devastating effects of su ch disasters either to the environment or to the economy of a nation (Ballarini & Okazaki, 2010). Nevertheless, such disasters of a higher magnitude have served to enlighten the engineering community on the relevance of prioritizing the safety needs of any engineering structure or project, over the cost reduction needs. The learning from major mistakes that have been done in the past has made it possible for numerous policy regulations and engineering efforts to be applied towards avoiding the repeat of such occurrences. Thus, this discussion seeks to analyze the Mississippi River Bridge disaster, with a view to establishing the particular aspects of the engineering disaster in relation to its causes, the engineering failures involved, the future recommendations for improvement to avoid such accidents and the implications of the disaster to the overall engineering

Timeline and Mind Map Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Timeline and Mind Map - Essay Example Maslow identifies five main concepts of human needs including physical, self-actualization, esteem, love, and safety requirements. After a review of the dynamic needs, Maslow further introduced new concepts into the motivation factors. For instance, cognitive needs came into lights. Knowledge and meaning are important aspects that motivate people towards management needs. Aesthetic needs such as appreciation, balance, form and beauty plays an integral role in the management. A working environment without these factors offer not only a platform of failure but also a denial of human needs. Locke believes a relationship exists between how difficult to perform a specific task and a goal. In many instances, goals are either too easy or vague. It, therefore, is important to formulate SMART goals that are specific and objective. Locke believes success in any management setup without goals is impossible. As a result, he came up with various strategies of setting goals that are both reachable and realistic. Undoubtedly, Locke’s theories remain one of the best guides to formulation of efficient theories. The five principles of goal setting should prioritize clarity of goals. According to him, clear goals are unambiguous, specific, and measurable with a definite time of completion. Clear goals allow employees to work with specific guidelines into reaching success. Additionally, the level of challenge plays an important role in motivating people towards success. Conceivably, people judge success based on the anticipated accomplishments. Rewards increase enthusiasm and realization of more difficult goals. It, therefore, is important to strike a balance between challenges and realistic goals. Commitment allows people to understand and commit into a goal when involved. Certainly, feedback and nature f task also plays an important role in clarity expectations. It vital to adjust goal difficulty, clarify expectation, and modify tasks for effectiveness. John Stacy

Critically analyse Hofstede's 'Cultural Dimensions' What correlation Essay

Critically analyse Hofstede's 'Cultural Dimensions' What correlation does Hofstede make among groups of countries and ho - Essay Example He was the originator of relative intercultural research. His publication which proved to be a land mark in defining organizational cultural aspects was ‘Cultures and Organization: Software of the Mind’ (1991). He is renowned for his contribution in developing the earliest experiential replica ‘dimensions of national culture’. In this model he established a pattern for explaining the different elements pertaining to culture of global economics, collaboration and communication with reference to multinational company IBM. This model later gave rise to the development of a model for explaining the organizational cultures. Due to his extensive contribution in the field of intercultural research he is regarded as the foremost representative of cultural studies. His research work is now use as a study tool in different subjects including management sciences and psychological studies (Greet Hofstede, 2012). The cultural theory of Hofstede deeply describes the impac t of culture on the inhabitants of a society. Initially he used the factor analysis to develop a model which correlates the values and behavior. At first the theory projected four aspects of culture through which values could be examined. The original model contained individualism v/s collectivism, masculinity (the impact of gender over the cultural values), power distance (distribution of power and the vigor of social hierarchy) and uncertainty avoidance. Later Hofstede included one more aspect to his model, the long-term orientation. The 2010 edition of his famous book ‘Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind’ has an addition of another aspect, indulgence v/s self restraint. Later additions to the original model have enabled to differentiate between evaluation of individual and country level statistics (Hofstede, Geert et al., 2010). The Hofstede’s work on cultural dimensions has stimulated the research in social beliefs. In order to develop his theory Hofstede examined the 116,000 of IBM with varying backgrounds and lifestyles. They all represented 66 different nations of three regions of the world. Research was based on questionnaires and it was undertaken somewhere between 1968 and 1972. After recognizing the five different dimensions of culture Hofstede categorized them as being generalize able for every society or region of the world. As almost all the society have the same cultural issues and aspects. To further analyze the dimensions he developed an index to plot to the countries under consideration as per their scores (Sven Rosenhauer, 2009). The brief description of the model is as follows (Martin Sebastian Scheuplein, 2010): Power Distance It describes the value or ‘power’ that an individual or society possess with respect to others. It is explained in the form of hierarchy that reflects the ‘distance’ of authority between different groups. Low power distance refers to minimum level of inequali ty among the members of society and high power distance reflects the other point of view. Individualism v/s Collectivism Individualism maintains distance from subordinates in the organization and focus more on the achievement of personal goals whereas collectivism encourages the cooperative efforts in order to achieve goals and objectives. Individualism is based on the ‘I’ approach that working alone is better than belonging to a group. Masculinity/Femininity There is an obvious difference between

Guanxi and Ethical Judgement Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Guanxi and Ethical Judgement - Research Paper Example Problem Statement: The study focused on the determination of the impact of the use guanxi concept in the Chinese organizational managements and the effects on the ethical standards and judgement of the organization. Approach: The research has been a secondary source based research and obtained its materials and understanding from the earlier researches conducted on the concerned topic. Results: It has been obtained from the study that the concept of guanxi has an extreme significance in the management of organizations, particularly with respect to the Chinese organizations. Conclusion: Although there are certain negative aspects of following the concept of guanxi, yet from the study it has been concluded that the concept is an essential factor for the Chinese organizations that have records of success stories from using the guanxi concept and maintaining enhanced interpersonal relationships. Discussion: The study reflected that if the misuse of the concept can be controlled, then the concept would prove to be an efficient and successful one not only for the Chinese organizations but for every other organization. If the world of business is considered, it can be realized that different decisions are taken within the managements that involve the relations that are prevailing among the organizational members. By Guanxi, it is referred to a unique form of relationship that involves reliance, favour, dependence and adjustment between the individuals thus enabling efficient decision making processes that are based on internal relationships. Theorists have speculated and mentioned that this could be used as an instrument for marketing as well since it is involves decisions related to the performance of marketing and the business as a whole. However, there are other theorists who focused on different views and reflected that guanxi if followed at a personal level might lead to unethical behaviour (Chan, Cheng & Szeto, 2002, p.327). Guanxi believed to be capable of leading organizational members to unethical practices; there are severe concerns for the ethical considerations for the business practice s in the Western countries. However, when China is considered for research, it has been observed that the Chinese organizations consider guanxi as an ethical practice (Chan, Cheng & Szeto, 2002, pp.327-328). Guanxi in China is recognized as a major activity in its world of business as well as the society. Guanxi had been realized and introduced in the management policies of Chinese organizations intending to cope with the ever-changing business environment. Although the concept of guanxi has not been clear with respect to China, yet, the process is considered as a realistic way of bringing accord between the different organizational members (Wong, Wong & Wong, 2010, pp.2142-2143). The current research focuses on the practice of guanxi and its relation to ethical judgement in the context of Chinese management behaviour. Literature Review and Propositions Development: Several studies have been conducted on the business ethics practice in Chinese organizations and the use of guanxi in the management policies among the Chinese organizational members. Other researchers who had conducted studies on the business ethics in China focused on how the practice of ethics developed in the country. Earlier the concept of ethics did not have any practical implication. However, their studies imply that ethical practice has now developed to a great extent and it is a part of the organizational management in the Chinese business world. Al-Khatib, Vollmers and Liu however mentioned that there has been a huge decline in the moral standards of the

Community research Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Community research - Case Study Example Fourth, qualitative methods apply biased knowledge. This is good for nursing because this discipline is not confined to inflexible, definable variables. 2. Disdvantages I see in using qualitative methods in nursing study. A disadvantage of qualitative methods is poor consistency. Another disadvantage is difficulty comprehending its dynamics and aspects. As a result, the chances of subjectivity in qualitative nursing studies increase radically. 3. Advantages I see in using quantitative methods in nursing study. One advantage of quantitative methods in nursing research is function. The role of quantitative findings is to apply a precise strategy for gathering and reviewing any measured information (Frels & Onwuegbuzie, 2013). Second, quantitative methods increase precision in study findings. This is because quantitative methods are based on numbers. 4. Disadvantages I see in using quantitative methods in nursing study. One disadvantage of quantitative methods in nursing studies is time consumption. Quantitative methods involve arbitrary selection of samples, which takes up a lot of time. Second, nursing researchers may find quantitative methods hard to carry out particularly when similar kinds of information are gathered concurrently (Frels & Onwuegbuzie, 2013). Aitamaa, E., Leino-Kilpi, H., Puukka, P., & Suhonen, R. (2010). Ethical problems in nursing management: The role of codes of ethics.  Nursing Ethics,  17(4), 469-82. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969733010364896 Frels, R. K., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2013). Administering quantitative instruments with qualitative interviews: A mixed research approach.  Journal of Counseling and Development: JCD,  91(2), 184-194. Retrieved from

Starbucks Coffee Company - An Analysis Assignment

Starbucks Coffee Company - An Analysis - Assignment Example No Heading Page No 1 Retail Sales Mix by Products Type for Company –Operated Stores 3 2 Coffee & Snacks Shops – Industry at a Glance – 2011 4 3 Total Net Revenues of Starbucks 5 4 Ranking of Porter’s Five Forces 7 5 Outlet Numbers of Selected Specialty coffee stores 9 4 Number of Coffee Outlets - UK 10 6 Comparable Stores Sales Growth 15 1.0 Introduction: Starbuck is the leader in roaster, retailer and marketer of specialty coffee in the international level functioning in sixty nations around the world. Through company operated stores, Starbucks buy and roast first-rate coffee beans which it would market with handcrafted tea, coffee and other hot drinks, roasted beans, coffee accessories and a number of food items to its customers around the world. Starbuck main goal is that its coffee should be grown under the top standards of quality employing just buying practices. (Bussing-Burks: 1). Retail Sales Mix by Products Type for Company –Operated Stores : Starbucks established its first store on March 29, 1971 in Seattle. The major turning point in Starbucks operations started after Howard Schultz joined as director of Starbucks retail marketing and operations in 1982 as Starbucks started to offer coffee to espresso bars and fine restaurants. In 1984, Howard convinced the founders of Starbucks to apply the Italian coffeehouse concept in Seattle and in 1984, the ever first Starbucks Caffe Latte was offered. In 1987, Starbucks was acquired by II Giornale and the name was changed to Starbucks Corporation (Gilbert: 1). In 2000, Howard Schultz was promoted as chairman of the company. In 2008, Howard Schultz returned as the chief executive officer from the position of chairman and Coffee Equipment Company was acquired. In 2011, it acquired evolution fresh and in 2012, it acquired La Boulange. As of 30th September 2012, Starbucks has 9405 company –operated stores and 8661 licensed stores around the world. (â€Å"Starbucks Timeline 2012†). 1.1 â€Å"Segment Analysis â€Å" â€Å"Current Market Position† Coffee & Snacks Shops – Industry at a Glance – 2011 â€Å"USD in Billions† Revenue 26.5 Industry Annual Growth 2006 to 2011 2% â€Å"Annual Growth 2011 to 2016† 4.1% Industry Profit 1.6 Industry Wages 6.1 As per IBIS World Industry Report 2011 (Coffee & Snacks Shops), Starbuck is occupying 32.6% of share in the industry. (Fellner 2008:17). As per Starbucks annual report, Starbuck serves about 33% of total QSR (Quick Service Restaurant), which includes both convenience store coffee shop and coffee shop despite cutthroat competition in QSR, Starbuck is able to hold its share in the industry. Further in the global market, every one cup of coffee out of 100 cups of coffee served is being served by the Starbucks. 1.2 â€Å"Current Strategies† Recovering from recession, Starbucks has attained the highest annual income of $11.7 bn in the year 2011. During 2011, Blonde Roast, was introduced in its products, it entered into the juice segment by acquiring Evolution Fresh. Starbucks is now able to serve about 60 million

Good VS Evil Essay Example for Free

Good VS Evil Essay There are many different gangs; some only allow certain races or colors to be considered part of the gang. Other gangs require an entrance fee which includes doing something to prove you are worthy to become part of the gang. This is anywhere from sexual acts to thievery to violent crimes to include killing people. The age range of gangs varies tremendously and includes ages from 9 years to 40 years and even beyond in some cases. There is a gang called The Satanic Cult who is based in the Gaithersburg, MD area. Their actions are pretty synonymous with their name. They practice in the ways of ritual animal and human sacrifices. Those that were not Caucasians were not allowed as well as those who had brown hair. The age range varies within this gang and there is no specific entry fee but the moment the gang feels you are no longer part of the gang they will then kill you. The Crips are from Los Angeles and are predominantly African American. This gang is one of the largest in the US and is involved in numerous murders, robberies, drugs and other various forms of criminal activity. They are also always in open warfare with the Bloods, also from Los Angeles. The Bloods are similar to the Crips and were originally the Crips back in 1970 until an internal war started which separated the original gang. The bloods show much disrespect to the Crips and are generally involved in the same thing as the Crips. Both can be found in the US and Military databases as threats. The Mexican mafia, yet another faction in Los Angeles teaches their children from a very young age on how to hold and operate a gun, helps their friends and neighbors with drugs, mainly heroin and is prevalent with car jackings so that the parts can be sold on the black market. Everything this gang does is done broadly and openly among all family members, regardless of their age. In Oregon there is a different type of gang and that is the outlaw motorcycle related gangs. One of these gangs is called the Mongrols and have four different chapter is the Eugene and Central Oregon area. Their ultimate punishment for infractions is to beat to death, the person who allegedly did wrong against the club. Their main operations include motorcycle jackings, drugs, prostitution, trafficking, and assaults and have additional chapters in both Australia and Germany. There is an estimated 1 million gang members throughout the US. The majority of them are involved in various criminal activities and there are only a few gangs who do good. Motorcycle gangs from The American Legions across the US do rides together for the benefit of children. So even though this is a small percentage, it goes to show not all gangs are bad, granted the majority of them are. References Alonso, A. Los Angeles Gangs (c. 1999) http://www. streetgangs. com/history/history. html Mac. Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs Flying Colors in Oregon. 2008 http://nwhog. wordpress. com/2008/05/08/outlaw-motorcycle-gangs-flying-colors-in-oregon/

Detecting Complex Image Data Using Data Mining Techniques

Detecting Complex Image Data Using Data Mining Techniques Detecting complex image data using data mining techniques IMRAN KHAN ABSTRACT The Internet, computer networks and information are vital resources of current information trend and their protection has increased in importance in current existence. The intrusion detection system (IDS) plays a vital role to monitors vulnerabilities in network and generates alerts when found attacks. Today the educational network services increasing day today so that IDS becomes essential for security on internet. The Intrusion data classification and detection process is very complex process in network security. In current network security scenario various types of Intrusion attack are available some are known attack and some are unknown attack. The attack of know Intrusion detection used some well know technique such as signature based technique and rule based technique. In case of unknown Intrusion attack of attack detection is various challenging task. In current trend of Intrusion detection used some data mining technique such as classification and clustering. The process of c lassification improves the process of detection of Intrusion. In this dissertation used graph based technique for Intrusion classification and detection. This dissertation proposes efficient intrusion detection architecture which named IDS using improved ensemble techniques (IDSIET). The IDSIET contains a new improved algorithm of attribute reduction which combines rough set theory and a method of establishing multiple rough classifications and a process of identifying intrusion data. The experimental results illustrate the effectiveness of proposed architecture. Our proposed work is implemented in MATLAB .for implementation purpose write various function and script file for implementation of our proposed architecture. For the test of our hybrid method, we used DARPA KDDCUP99 dataset. This data set is basically set of network intrusion and host intrusion data. This data provided by UCI machine learning website. Proposed method compare with exiting ensemble techniques and generate the improved ensemble technique to getting better result such as detection rate, precision and recall value. Keywords- Intrusion Detection System (IDS), IDSIET, Neural Network, rough set theory, Network Security, MATALAB, KDDCUP99 Dataset. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURE Comparison with linear scale-space representation While not being used explicitly in SURF, we take interest here in the approximation of Gaussian kernels by box filters to understand the advantages and the limitations of the SURF approach. 3.1 Scale-space representation linear scale space The linear scale-space representation of a real valued image u : R2 7→ R defined on a continuous domain is obtained by a convolution with the Gaussian kernel uÏÆ' := GÏÆ' âˆâ€"u (1) where GÏÆ' is the centered, isotropic and separable 2-D Gaussian kernel with variance ÏÆ'2 ∀(x,y) ∈R2, GÏÆ'(x,y) := 1 2Ï€ÏÆ'2 e−x2+y2 2ÏÆ'2 = gÏÆ'(x)gÏÆ'(y) and gÏÆ'(x) = 1 √2π ·ÃÆ'e− x2 2ÏÆ'2 . (2) The variable ÏÆ' is usually referred to as the scale parameter. Discrete scale space In practice, for the processing of a numerical image u, this continuous filter is approximated using regular sampling, truncation and normalization: ∀i,j ∈J−K,KK GÏÆ'(i,j) = 1 CK GÏÆ'(i,j) , where CK = K Xi,j =−K GÏÆ'(i,j). (3) The scale variable ÏÆ' is also sampled, generally using a power law, as discussed later in  § 3.2. Discrete box space Making use of the aforementioned box filter technique, such a multi-scale representation can be (very roughly) approximated using a box filter with square domain Γ = J−Î ³,ÃŽ ³KÃâ€"J−Î ³,ÃŽ ³K uÃŽ ³ := 1 (2ÃŽ ³ + 1)2 BΓ âˆâ€"u. (4) The question now is how to set the parameter ÃŽ ³ ∈ N to get the best approximation of Gaussian zoom-out. Second moment comparison One may for instance choose to match the second order moment ÏÆ'2 of the 1D Gaussian gÏÆ' and the variance of the corresponding box filter, as suggested by [7]. This leads to the relation ÏÆ'2 ÃŽ ³ = ÃŽ ³ Xi =−Î ³ i2 2ÃŽ ³ + 1 = (2ÃŽ ³ + 1)2 −1 12 = ÃŽ ³(ÃŽ ³ + 1) 3 , (5) where ÏÆ'2 ÃŽ ³ is the variance of the centered 1D box filter with width 2ÃŽ ³ + 1. Thus, for large values of filter size (ÃŽ ³ 1), we get approximately ÏÆ'ÃŽ ³ ≈ ÃŽ ³ √3 ≈ 0.58ÃŽ ³. Since ÃŽ ³ ∈ N takes integer values, ÏÆ'ÃŽ ³and ÏÆ' cannot match exactly in general. Moreover, due to the anisotropy of the box filter in 2D, it is impossible to match the covariance matrices. SURF scale parameter analogy Note that box filters are only used to approximate first and second order of Gaussian derivatives in SURF algorithm, and not to approximate Gaussian filtering like in [7]. However, when considering the approximation of second order Gaussian derivative Dxx GÏÆ'(x,y) = Dxx gÏÆ'(x)Ãâ€"gÏÆ'(y) = 1 ÏÆ'22 ÏÆ'2 −1gÏÆ'(x)Ãâ€"gÏÆ'(y) By these condition order box filter operator DLxx, we can see that the1D Gaussian filter gÏÆ'(y) is approximated by 1D box filter with parameter ÃŽ ³ = L−1 2. The authors of SURF claim that the corresponding Gaussian scale is ÏÆ' = 1.2 3 L ≈ 0.8ÃŽ ³for ÃŽ ³ 1, which is close but dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erent to the value given by Formula (5): ÏÆ'ÃŽ ³ ≈ 0.58ÃŽ ³. Other analogies could have been made for scale variables, for instance by considering zero crossing of second order derivative of Gaussians, second moment of Gaussian derivatives, mean-square error minimization, but each one provides dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erent relations. In conclusion, defining a relation between the box parameters (L and `(L)) and the Gaussian scale variable ÏÆ' seems quite arbitrary. Visual comparison Figure 8 illustrates the dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erence between the linear scale-space representation obtained by Gaussian filtering and the box-space, that is its approximation by box-filters when using relation (5). While being roughly similar, the approximated scale-space exhibits some strong vertical and horizontal artifacts due to the anisotropy and the high frequencies of the box kernels. Again, while it is not being used explicitly in SURF, these artifacts may explain some of the spurious detections of the SURF approach that will be exhibited later on. 3.2 Box-space sampling Because of the dentition of first and second order box filters, the size parameter L cannot be chosen arbitrarily. The sampling values and the corresponding variables used to mimic the linear scale space analysis. The following paragraphs give more detailed explanations. Octave decomposition Alike most multi-scale decomposition approaches (see e.g. [13, 15]), the box-space discretization in SURF relies on dyadic sampling of the scale parameter L. The box length representation is therefore divided into octaves (similarly to SIFT [14, 13]), which are indexed by parameter o ∈{1,2,3,4}, where a new octave is created for every doubling of the kernel size. Note that, in order to save computation time, the filtered image is generally sub-sampled of factor two at every octave, as done for instance by SIFT [14]. As pointed out by the author of SURF [2], sub-sampling is not necessary with the use of box filters, since the computation time complexity does not depends on scale. However, while not being explicitly stated in the original paper [2], but as done in most implementations we have reviewed (for instance, this approximation is used in [3] but not in [5]), we choose to use sub-sampling to speed up the algorithm. More precisely, instead of evaluating the multi-scale operators at each pixel, we use a sampling†step† which depends on the octave level (this sampling is detailed in the next sections). Note that this strategy is consistent with the fact that the number of features is decreasing with respect to scale. Level sampling Each octave is also divided in several levels (indexed here by the parameter i ∈ {1,2,3,4}). In the usual discrete scale space analysis, these levels correspond directly to the desired sampling of the scale variable ÏÆ', which parametrizes the discretized Gaussian kernels GÏÆ' (see definition in Eq. (16)). In SURF, the relation between scale L, octave o and level i variables is L := 2o i + 1 . (6) These values are summarized in Table 2. Note that because of the non-maxima suppression involved in the feature selection, only intermediate levels are actually used to define interest points and local descriptors (i ∈{2,3}). On comparison of the box space and the linear scale space. (Top) Convolution with squared and centered box filters with radii ÃŽ ³ = 5 and ÃŽ ³ = 20 (respectively from left to right). (Middle) Corresponding Gaussian filters with respective scales ÏÆ'5 ≈ 3.16 and ÏÆ'20 ≈ 11.83, according to formula (5). Dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erence between Gaussian and Box filters (using a linear transform for visualization). We can see here that the box space is a rough approximation of the Gaussian scale space, that exhibits some artifacts due to the anisotropy and the high frequencies of the box kernels. Scale analogy with linear scale space As discussed before in Section 3.1, we can define a scale analysis variable by analogy with the linear scale space decomposition. In [2], the scale parameter ÏÆ'(L) associated with octave o and level i is obtained by the following relation ÏÆ'(L) := 1.2 3(2o Ãâ€"i + 1) = 0.4L. (7) Since the relation between the scale ÏÆ'(L) of an interest point is linear in the size parameter L of box filters operators, we shall speak indià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erently of the former or the latter to indicate the scale. Remark A finer scale-space representation could be obtained (i.e. with sub-pixel values of L) using a bilinear interpolation of the image, as suggested in [2]. This is not performed in the proposed implementation. 3.3 Comparison with Gaussian derivative operators 3.3.1 First order operators The first order box filters DL x and DL y defined at scale L are approximations of the first derivatives of Gaussian kernel at the corresponding scale ÏÆ'(L) (see Eq. (7)), respectively corresponding to Dx GÏÆ'(x,y) = − x ÏÆ'2(L) GÏÆ'(x,y) and Dy GÏÆ'(x,y). These operators are used for local feature description, in detailed we compares the first order box filter impulse response with the discretized Gaussian derivative kernel. DL x ÃŽ ´ (Eq. (6)) Dx GÏÆ'(L) Illustration of the discrete derivative operator DL x (defined in Section 2.3.1) and discretization of the Gaussian derivative kernel Dx GÏÆ'(L) when using scale relation ÏÆ'(L) from Eq. (7). 3.3.2 The second order operators Second order dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erential operators are computed in the scale-space for the detection of interest points [9, 10]. In the linear scale-space representation, this boils down to the convolution with second derivatives of Gaussian kernels Dxx GÏÆ'(x,y) = 1 ÏÆ'22 ÏÆ'2 −1GÏÆ'(x,y), Dyy GÏÆ', and Dxy GÏÆ'(x,y) = xy ÏÆ'4 GÏÆ'(x,y). (8) In the SURF approach, the convolution with theses kernels are approximated by second order box filters, previously introduced respectively as DL xx, DL yy , and DL xy . A visual comparison between second order derivatives of Gaussian and their analogous with box filters. These operators are required for local feature selection step in section 4. 3.3.3 Scale Normalization According to [12], dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erential operators have to be normalized when applied in linear scale space in order to achieve scale invariance detection of local features. More precisely, as it can be seen from Equation (21), the amplitude of the continuous second order Gaussian derivative filters decreases with scale variable ÏÆ' by a factor 1 ÏÆ'2. To balance this eà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ect, second order operators are usually normalized by ÏÆ'2, so that we get for instance (a) (b) (c) (d) On comparison of second order box filters and second order derivative of Gaussian kernels. (a) operator DL yy; (b) discretizedsecondorderGaussianderivative D2 y GÏÆ'; (c) operator DL xy; (d) discretized second order Gaussian derivative Dxy GÏÆ'; For comparison purpose, we used again the scale relation ÏÆ'(L) from Eq. (7). †¢ the scale-normalized determinant of Hessian operator: DoHÏÆ' (u) :=uÏÆ' −(Dxy uÏÆ')2; (9) †¢ the scale-normalized Laplacian operator: à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ÃÆ' u := ÏÆ'2à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬   uÏÆ' = ÏÆ'2à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬   GÏÆ' âˆâ€"u = ÏÆ'2(Dxx + Dyy)GÏÆ' âˆâ€"u = ÏÆ'2(Dxx uÏÆ' + Dyy uÏÆ'), (10) where à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ÃÆ' GÏÆ'(x,y) = ÏÆ'2(Dxx +Dyy)à ¢- ¦GÏÆ'(x,y) =x2+y2 ÏÆ'2 −1GÏÆ'(x,y) is the multi-scale Laplacian of Gaussian. Observe that this operator can be obtained from the Trace of the scalenormalized Hessian matrix. These two operators are widely used in computer vision for feature detection. They are also approximatedinSURF,asdetailedinthenextsections. Asaconsequence, suchascale-normalization is also required with box filters to achieve similar invariance in SURF. To do so, the authors proposed that amplitude of operators DL xx , DL yy , and DL xy should be reweighted so that the l2 norms of normalized operators become constant over scales. The quadratic l2 norm of operators are estimated from the squared Frobenius norm of impulse responses kDL xxk2 2 := kDL xx ÃŽ ´k2 F = kDL yy ÃŽ ´k2 F =1 + 1 + (−1)2L(2L−1) = 6L(2L−1), so that kDL xxk2 2 ≈ 12L2 when L=1, and kDL xyk2 2 := kDL xy ÃŽ ´k2 F =1 + 1 + (−1)2 + (−1)2LÃâ€"L = 4L2. This means that box filters responses should be simply divided by the scale parameter L to achieve scale invariance detection. Interest point detection: In the previous sections, second order operators based on box filters have been introduced. These operators are multi-scale and may be normalized to yield scale invariant response. We will now take interest in their use for multi-scale local feature detection. Once the integral image has been computed, three consecutive steps are performed which are detailed in the following sections: 1. Feature filtering based on a combination of second order box filters; 2. Feature selection is combining non-maxima suppression and thresholding; 3. Scale-space location refinement ( § 4.3) using second order interpolation. This interest point detection task is summarized in Algorithm 1. Step-1 Filtering Image by Integration: Integral image and box filters Let u be the processed digital image defined over the pixel grid à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ = [0,N-1]Ãâ€"[0.M-1], where M and N are positive integers. In the following, we only consider quantized gray valued images (taking values in the range [0; 255]), which is the simplest way to achieve robustness to color modifications, such as a white balance correction. The integral image of I for(x,y) à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ is Flow Diagram: Figure3.1: showing the flow chart of the process for object detection Step 2: Point Detection: During the detection step, the local maxima in the box-space of the determinant of Hessian† operator are used to select interest point candidates. These candidates are then validated if the response is above a given threshold. Both the scale and location of these candidates are then refined using quadratic fitting. Typically, a few hundred interest points are detected in a megapixel image. input: image u, integral image U, octave o, level i output: DoHL(u) function Determinant_of_Hessian (U; o; i) L 2oi + 1 (Scale variable, Eq. (19)) for x := 0 to M à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ 1, step 2oà ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬1 do (Loop on columns) for y := 0 to N à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ 1, step 2oà ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬1 do (Loop on rows) DoHL(u)(x; y) Formula (24) (with (4), (10) and (11)) end for end for return DoHL(u) end function Algo input: image u output: listKeyPoints (Initialization) U IntegralImage(u) (Eq. (1)) (Step 1: filtering of features) for L 2 f3; 5; 7; 9; 13; 17; 25; 33; 49; 65g do (scale sampling) DoHL(u) Determinant_of_Hessian (U; L) end for (Step 2: selection and refinement of keypoints) for o := 1 to 4 do (octave sampling) for i := 2 to 3 do (levels sampling for maxima location) L -> 2o i + 1 listKeyPoints -> listKeyPoints + KeyPoints(o; i;DoHL(u)) end for end for return listKeyPoints So that the scale normalization factor C(L) for second order box filters should be proportional to 1 L2 However, the previous normalization is only true when L1. Indeed, while we have kDxxGÏÆ'k2 2 kDxyGÏÆ'k2 2 = 3 at any scale ÏÆ', this is not exactly true with box filters, where: kDL xxk2 2 kDL xyk2 2 = 3(2L−1) 2L ≈ 3 when L1. To account for this dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erence in normalization for small scales, while keeping the same (fast) un-normalized box filters, the author of SURF introduced in Formula (24) a weight factor: w(L) = kDL xxk2 kDL xyk2  ·kDxyGÏÆ'k2 kDxxGÏÆ'k2 =r2L−1 2L . (26) The numerical values of this parameter are listed in the last column of Table 2. As noticed by the authors of SURF, the variable w(L) does not vary so much across scales. This is the resaon why the weighting parameter w in Eq. (10) is fixed to w(3) = 0.9129. Feature selection: In our methodology, interest points are defined as local maxima of the aforementioned DoHL operator applied to the image u. These maxima are detected by considering a 3 Ãâ€" 3 Ãâ€" 3 neighborhood, andperforminganexhaustivecomparisonofeveryvoxelofthediscretebox-spacewith its 26 nearest-neighbors. The corresponding feature selection procedure is described in Algorithm 3. Algorithm 3 Selection of features input: o,i,DoHL(u) (Determinant of Hessian response at octave o and level i) output: listKeyPoints (List of keypoints in box space with sub-pixel coordinates (x,y,L)) function KeyPoints (o,i,DoHL(u)) L ↠ 2oi + 1 for x := 0 to M −1, step 2o−1 do (Loop on columns) for y = 0 to N −1, step 2o−1 do (Loop on rows) if DoHL(u)(x,y) > tH then (Thresholding) if isMaximum (DoHL(u),x,y) then (Non-maximum suppression) if isRefined (DoHL(u),x,y,L) then addListKeyPoints (x,y,L) end if end if end if end for end for return listKeyPoints end function Remark A faster method has been proposed in [21] to find the local maxima without exhaustive search, which has been not implemented for the demo. Thresholding: Using four octaves and two levels for analysis, eight dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬erent scales are therefore analyzed (see Table 2 in Section 3.2). In order to obtain a compact representation of the image -and also to cope with noise perturbation- the algorithm selects the most salient features from this set of local maxima. This is achieved by using a threshold tH on the response of the DoHL operator DoHL(u)(x,y) > tH . (27) Note that, since the operator is scale-normalized, the threshold is constant. In the demo, this threshold has been set to 10 assuming that the input image u takes values in the intervalJ0,255K. This setting enables us to have a performance similar to the original SURF algorithm [2, 1] (see Section 6 for more details). Figure 13 shows the set of interest points detected as local box-space maxima of the DoHL operator, and selected after thresholding. For visualization purpose, the radii of the circles is set as 2.5 times the box scale L of the corresponding interest points.

Jobs in Information Security

Jobs in Information Security Major: My major is information security. Information security: Information security, abbreviated to Information security, is the act of anticipating unapproved get to, utilize, exposure, disturbance, change, examination, recording or annihilation of data. Some of the time alluded to as PC security, data innovation security is data security connected to innovation (frequently some type of PC framework). It is advantageous to note that a PC does not really mean a home desktop. A PC is any gadget with a processor and some memory. Such gadgets can extend from non-organized independent gadgets as straightforward as adding machines, to arranged versatile registering gadgets, for example, cell phones and tablet PCs. IT security masters are quite often found in any real venture/foundation because of the nature and estimation of the information inside bigger organizations. They are in charge of keeping the majority of the innovation inside the organization secure from noxious digital assaults that frequently endeavor to rupture into basic private data or pick up control of the inner frameworks. Information assurance: The demonstration of giving trust of the data, that the Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability (CIA) of the data are not damaged, e.g. guaranteeing that information is not lost when basic issues emerge. These issues incorporate, yet are not constrained to: cataclysmic events, PC/server glitch or physical burglary. Since most data is put away on PCs in our present day time, data confirmation is commonly managed by IT security pros. A typical technique for giving data affirmation is to have an off-site reinforcement of the information in the event that one of the said issues emerge. Jobs Titles There are many jobs available in this major. Here I will discuss only 3 jobs. Information Security Manager Information Security Analyst Security Operations intelligence manager Information Security Manager The Security Governance, Risk and Compliance Manager is in charge of guaranteeing undertaking information systems and frameworks are agreeable with all Information Security, consistence and review controls and in addition corporate approaches intended to ensure business interests. Information Security Manager will counsel inside and track and deal with all innovation related dangers. With his/her propelled learning in data security he/she will be entrusted with setting up best practices here. Responsibilities: There are some major responsibilities for this job is given below. Make, keep up and deal with the Information Security, Technology Risk, Audit and consistence plans. Teams up Business and Technology initiative to build up a coordinated way to deal with data innovation hazard administration and consistence that properly adjusts organizations hazard hunger, values, computerized items and market position. Liaises and works with the Internal Audit and Group Functions to guarantee an incorporated plans. Selection criteria There are some selection criteria in given below Least of ten years administration encounter inside an Information Security/Risk Governance work inside a vast professional workplace Solid comprehension of key business goals and have the capacity to well-spoken hazard with regards to business targets; he or she will have a profound working information of significant consistence, administrative systems, for example, ISO27001, PCI-DSS, Sarbanes-Oxley. Solid comprehension of key business goals and have the capacity to well-spoken hazard with regards to business targets; he or she will have a profound working information of significant consistence, administrative systems, for example, ISO27001, PCI-DSS, Sarbanes-Oxley. Solid correspondence and introduction aptitudes required. Proficient security administration affirmation as a Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP). Affirmed Information Security Manager (CISM), Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control (CRISC) or other comparable favored. Information Security Analyst Information Security Analyst is a person that surveys and investigates IT conditions/foundations for data security plan, execution and upkeep related procedures. Data security experts audit IT conditions for security needs and necessities, and give their understanding into actualizing and enhancing the data security engineering of an association. Duties: Ensure effective delivery of the UAR service and all relevant processes. Investigating, responding to, remediating and reporting on any identified UAR issues. Investigating, responding to, remediating and reporting on any identified UAR issues. Provides well-informed advice and consultancy on UAR. Identity and implement changes or improvements to UAR processes. Maintain information security records and documentation to provide the level of assurance/governance required by the Westpac Group. Deliver requirements that form part of SOX Group Assurance audits that relate to the UAR process. Both internal and external Investigate, respond to, resolve, and report on security incidents/issues as directed, based on their risk level and advise on and ensure implementation of governance frameworks to ensure that incidents/events are actioned promptly based on their risk level Selection criteria Three years experience, with two years in an Information Security, Information Technology, Risk Management or equivalent role. Exposure to Access Control administration, processes and systems. A good understanding on IAM and in particular UAR best practice, standards and guidelines. Excellent verbal and written communication skills with an ability to achieve results working with all the businesses throughout the Bank. Formal education or certification in Information Security, Information Technology, Risk Management or equivalent discipline is desirable. Security Operations intelligence manager Accountabilities: Monitoring security systems for abnormal behavior. Mitigate and/or contain incidents, working with the suitable internal and external teams. Monitoring vulnerability and intelligence feeds for the latest news and alerts in the security industry. Monitoring the vendor and product landscape to know what products are available and offer advice on their value to the business. Identifying gaps or areas for improvement, where people, process changes or tools can assist. Educating the business on what is good practice, what are the current threats and how to avoid a data breach or security incident Providing specialist security advice to management, project teams, the supply chain and internal stakeholders Improve reporting to the Executive management and the business. Managing a team, mentoring technical staff and provide training. Planning and strategy development. Risk Assessments Vendor Management Presentations to clients and internal stakeholders Selection criteria Experience with Firewalls, WAFs, DLP and IPS. Experience testing and deploying security technologies. Penetration Testing Malware analysis Architecture experience CISSP, SANS and/or OSCP certificates Graduate or Postgraduate degree in IT Mobile and pervasive systems Mobile and pervasive systems is my elective in about Information Security because this very large industry and there is lots of chances to growing up thats why I am interested in this field. Mobiles and pervasive systems are every in the world. One prominent vision is that family gadgets apparatuses, stimulation focuses, telephones, indoor regulators, lights, and so forth will be invested with microchips permitting the gadgets to speak with each other and with the homes occupants. The dishwasher can ask the water radiator whether the water temperature is sufficient; occupants can phone home and remotely train the VCR to record a most loved show; the TV could choose news stories of exceptional enthusiasm to the tenant; the stereo may bring down its volume when the telephone rings; and the garments dryer may make a declaration over a radio framework when it has finished its cycle. An operator based architecture for supporting setting mindful frameworks in savvy spaces (e.g., shrewd meeting rooms, keen homes, and brilliant vehicles). Key to this engineering is a shrewd specialist called setting handle that keeps up a common model of setting for the benefit of a group of operators, administrations, and gadgets in the space and gives security insurances to the clients in the space by implementing the approach decides that they characterize. The utilization of operators permits execution of complex operations that includes a lot of information to be done successfully utilizing dispersed assets. Network planning and configuration is an iterative procedure, incorporating topological plan, arrange combination, and system acknowledgment, and is gone for guaranteeing that another media communications system or administration addresses the issues of the supporter and administrator. User experience design is the way toward upgrading client fulfillment with an item by enhancing the ease of use, availability, and joy gave in the collaboration the item. Analysis of data is a procedure of investigating, purifying, changing, and demonstrating information with the objective of finding helpful data, recommending conclusions, and supporting basic leadership. Information examination has numerous aspects and methodologies, incorporating various strategies under an assortment of names, in various business, science, and sociology areas.

Essay examples --

Mary Anne Warren and others argue for a liberal position on the abortion debate. A liberal view of abortion is roughly thought of as an idea that abortions should be able to be terminated at any stage in the pregnancy. In this paper, I will argue a defense of abortion, or a liberal view of abortion, using utilitarianism. I will then respond to a counterargument about the moral worth of the fetus. I will respond to this objection by looking at a strong argument by Marquis. Finally, I’ll conclude that Warren’s is the stronger position. This argument will follow a utilitarian view of the availability of abortion. To examine the ethics of abortion, it is important to first examine utilitarianism. Utilitarianism generally follows the idea that it is important to do whatever the greatest good for the greatest amount of people is. In Michael Sandel’s book Justice, he gives a definition of utilitarianism as â€Å"the highest moral principle will be to maximize utility for the most people† (Sandel, 34). In this essay I will demonstrate how Mary Anne Warren uses this idea to build a solid foundation for her argument in favor of unfettered use of abortions. Similar to Mary Anne Warren, I believe that abortions should always remain legal because there is no stage in fetal development in which a fetus resembles a person. Warren does make the distinction that a fetus may resemble a human being because they have a full genetic code and potential of become a person, however, Warren defines a person as someone with the capacity for rational thought, therefore a fetus might resemble a human but doesn’t resemble a person. (Warren, 11). While it is hotly contested, a fetus doesn’t have rational thought. For the most part, people would not consider a fet... ...oes present an extremely strong argument against abortion, it is not stronger than Mary Anne Warren’s position for the reason that potential beings do not hold rights and thus have no right to a future while actual beings do hold rights and thus should have an absolute right to an abortion. All in all, while there are many views and assessments on the ethics and morality of abortion, the utilitarianism view is clearly the best because it maximizes the utility of actual persons, and because fetuses aren't persons, they don't have to be considered in our utility calculus and can justifiably be aborted at any stage in gestation. Although the conservative view restricting abortions is very strong, it deprives actual persons of their utility in favor of the utility of potential beings and therefore in no way, shape, or form follows the general ideas of utilitarianism. Essay examples -- Mary Anne Warren and others argue for a liberal position on the abortion debate. A liberal view of abortion is roughly thought of as an idea that abortions should be able to be terminated at any stage in the pregnancy. In this paper, I will argue a defense of abortion, or a liberal view of abortion, using utilitarianism. I will then respond to a counterargument about the moral worth of the fetus. I will respond to this objection by looking at a strong argument by Marquis. Finally, I’ll conclude that Warren’s is the stronger position. This argument will follow a utilitarian view of the availability of abortion. To examine the ethics of abortion, it is important to first examine utilitarianism. Utilitarianism generally follows the idea that it is important to do whatever the greatest good for the greatest amount of people is. In Michael Sandel’s book Justice, he gives a definition of utilitarianism as â€Å"the highest moral principle will be to maximize utility for the most people† (Sandel, 34). In this essay I will demonstrate how Mary Anne Warren uses this idea to build a solid foundation for her argument in favor of unfettered use of abortions. Similar to Mary Anne Warren, I believe that abortions should always remain legal because there is no stage in fetal development in which a fetus resembles a person. Warren does make the distinction that a fetus may resemble a human being because they have a full genetic code and potential of become a person, however, Warren defines a person as someone with the capacity for rational thought, therefore a fetus might resemble a human but doesn’t resemble a person. (Warren, 11). While it is hotly contested, a fetus doesn’t have rational thought. For the most part, people would not consider a fet... ...oes present an extremely strong argument against abortion, it is not stronger than Mary Anne Warren’s position for the reason that potential beings do not hold rights and thus have no right to a future while actual beings do hold rights and thus should have an absolute right to an abortion. All in all, while there are many views and assessments on the ethics and morality of abortion, the utilitarianism view is clearly the best because it maximizes the utility of actual persons, and because fetuses aren't persons, they don't have to be considered in our utility calculus and can justifiably be aborted at any stage in gestation. Although the conservative view restricting abortions is very strong, it deprives actual persons of their utility in favor of the utility of potential beings and therefore in no way, shape, or form follows the general ideas of utilitarianism.

Story of Saint Hilarion Castle and Queen Regaena :: Byzantine Cyprus

Story of St. Hilarion Castle and Queen Regaena â€Å"Welcome to St. Hilarion, step forward into Queen Regaena’s chamber to receive your pay for your hard work and dedication!† As I step through the doorway, there is the alluring Queen Regaena just inside the open window of her chamber. I cross the room, and I unexpectedly feel the guards’ presence close in behind me. Suddenly, they grab me and force me through the open window. As the guards push me from the precipice outside the window, â€Å"Thank you again,† are the last words I hear, as I fall to my death in the valley below. The fairy tale-looking castle of St. Hilarion was built by the Byzantine queen, Regaena, the end of the 11th century. Queen Regaena was the most beautiful lady in the land of Cyprus, alas; she was also the most heartless and cruel. She was a greedy woman and desired to have the most beautiful and elaborate castle in all of Cyprus. Queen Regaena insisted on overseeing the construction of the castle herself. No detail was to be overlooked. In planning such a large and magnificent castle, Queen Regaena knew that she would need a large workforce. She gathered a large number of sturdy men from near and far and forced them to build her castle. She required the men to form lines, standing side by side, and pass the materials from man to man until they reached their assigned destination. This was difficult work since most of the materials had to be transported from the valley to the summit of the mountain. But goal was to complete the castle in Regaena’s lifetime so she could enjoy it. Finally, the glorious castle was completed and she named it St. Hilarion Castle. Its unsurpassed grandeur impressed all who beheld it. Queen Regaena should have been joyful at the completion of St. Hilarion, however, she was worried. Over the years, Queen Regaena had amassed a large fortune of gold and wealth in her family treasury. Her greatest fear was that the workers who constructed the castle would remember the hidden location of the royal treasure room. She sat in a chamber in the western wing of the castle and thought of a plan to prevent possible robbery. This particular chamber had a window which opened onto an enormous precipice and had a breathtaking view of the valley far below. Sitting at this window, she devised an evil plan to protect her treasure.

Would You Like Ketchup With That Dollar? :: Essays Papers

Would You Like Ketchup With That Dollar? Money does not satiate the stomach, only the food it purchases can. Material possessions contain the lowest number of kilocalories-per-gram (i.e. none) when compared to fatty acids, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Power tends to be nutrient deficient (eggs, however, are quite functional). And, as of yet, science has been unable to show any effects (positive or negative) of elite membership upon the area of the brain related to hunger -- the hypothalamus. Food is the most basic and essential component of human existence, next to air, of course. In the last instance, it -- not wealth, power, or status -- matters most. Period. Yet, its sheer abundance in the core nations of the world remains unparalleled in most or all of human history. So much so, that it goes scarcely noticed anymore. In the market it is viewed as a commodity to be bought and sold, an abstraction of itself, not real or tangible. In the grocery store the abstraction, through clever marketing and advertising, becomes a heavily constructed and objectified notion of reality. Meanwhile, the consumer remains alienated and detached from one of the elements most antecedent to life and existence. I have read of some -- great Yogis of the East, who, through their enlightened communion with the Divine, are able to transcend any physical need of sustenance. But, the revelations of Sages remain lost to most of us, too caught up in the mayhem of capitalistic endeavors to even think about such mysticism. The commodification of food and the industrialization of agriculture have removed us from the cadences of nature. With time, industrial agriculture is proving more and more unsustainable, less reliable and wonderful than it is touted to be. While large agribusiness continues to strive for greater crop yields, increased mechanization, lower labor costs, more acreage, new technologies, consolidations -- maximum profits -- farmers are striving to feed their families, to keep their land, and to justify their existence as farmers. If traditional farming is not dead already, it is surely dying. Yet, there are some who refuse to allow the fields to lay forever fallow.

Describe How Health and Safety Legislation, Policies and Procedures Promote of Individuals in a Health or Social Care Setting

Describe how health and safety legislation, policies and procedures promote of individuals in a health or social care setting Health, Safety and security issues are extremely important in care settings in order to protect staff and children, and their families. Legislations and regulations ensure that guidelines are followed to enforce safety and security within an organisation. Legislation is law which has been created by a governing body.Before a piece of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to as legislation while it remains under consideration to distinguish it from other business. Policies ensure that everyone must work within the law and meet the minimum care standards set out by the legislation. Finally, procedures are the steps that are needed to be followed to ensure everyone’s safety within the workplace.Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH, 2002), for example, requires employers to control substances that are haz ardous to health such as toxic, corrosive or irritant chemicals like cleaning products or even bodily fluids. In a setting such as a Nursery, hazardous substances that are not stored properly and are easily accessible to children may cause consummation further poisoning or spilling on themselves. This hazard could be minimised by storing these substances in a high, possibly locked, area so that children are not likely to get a hold of them and harm themselves.Also, the incorrect disposal of soiled nappies etc. can cause germs to spread and could cause infection or cross contaminations within the Nursery. This can be avoided by having a specific bin solely for the disposal of soiled nappies to ensure that harm cannot result from this. Ensure that all staff are trained on how to deal with an incident and giving them full information of the regulation because it helps them act quickly enough if there was to be an incident. The Food Safety Regulation Act (1995) makes sure there is a foo d hygiene standard in place in all businesses.Illnesses and infections can be easily cause by someone, be it a child or member of staff, not washing their hands before eating or preparing food. This could be after changing a nappy, going to the toilet or playing outside. This risk can be minimised by making sure everyone washes their hands before eating and before, during and after preparing meals. Also, ensure that all equipment is clean and in good condition as this can also cause contamination if dealing with raw and cooked foods.The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulation (1995) requires employers to report injuries and dangerous occurrences as soon as they happen. In a nursery, broken furniture, broken toys and small objects can lead to injury or possibly death. Broken furniture can cause children to cut or graze themselves on the sharp break offs. Whereas with broken or unsuitable toys, children can swallow the object causing choking or death. This risk can be avoided by carrying out regular checks of the furniture and toys, making sure they are suitable for use with children. If not, then they should be disposed of efficiently.With the Data Protection Act (1998), the nursery has to control and protect the handling of the personal information of children and parents. Recklessness and naivety can cause personal information being let out into the public eye. Staff writing down children’s or their parent’s personal details or opinions can end up open to public view. This can be minimised by making sure all data is kept secure on an internal wall, in a locked cupboard. Also, ensuring that all staff are trained to correctly deal with information and are aware of the consequences of recklessness can help lower the risk. www. hse. gov. uk www. foodstandards. gov

Rationalism Essay

soundism vs. principalalismFirst create Thu Aug 19, 2004 strong revision Thu Mar 21, 2013 The residual surrounded by coherentism and sensationalism concerns the close to which we ar manage c atomic identification number 18nt upon smack bugger off in our effort to un recite a crap association. Rationalists consume that on that tear d proclaim be signifi toilettet ship guidance in which our fantasys and fellowship ar inst altogether wate ruby- ruby separately of signified beget. Empiricists use up that consciousness get a line is the ultimate computer address of separately last(predicate) our patterns and scholarship. Rationalists by and large develop their view in devil panaches. First, they fence that in that respect atomic number 18 cases where the mar path of our excogitations or cognition go on forthstrips the in cultivateation that gumption make up fix propose. Second, they construct looks of how motive in close to do or opposite appends that additional in normalation roughly(predicate) the sphere. Empiricists largess complementary lines of image. First, they develop postings of how carry verboten abides the in administration that positivists cite, insofar as we move for granted it in the low place. (Empiricists testamenting at times opt for skepticism as an alternative to rationalism if drop a go at it shag non provide the imaginations or acquaintance the positivists cite, because we acceptt go them.) Second, empiricists dishonour the positivists lines of how cogitate is a ac realizeledgment of notions or noesis.1. institutionThe dispute in the midst of rationalism and empiricism takes place at heart epistemology, the branch of ism devoted to studying the reputation, reference books and limits of companionship. The defining misgivings of epistemology entangle the sp atomic number 18-time solveivity. 1. What is the dis side of pro bunkal dist inguishledge, inductledge that a extra pro spotlight close the innovation is ad plainly? To sleep together a proposition, we moldinessiness commit it and it essentialiness be unfeigned, tho al nigh subject to a longer extent(prenominal) is communicated, roughthing that distinguishes companionship from a well-heeled guess. lets c of exclusively timey last(predicate) this additional fixings obiter dictum. A good quid of philosophical work has been invested in exhausting to qualify the reputation of guaranty.2. How locoweed we elucidate association?We locoweed hit professedly sentiments middling by making lucky guesses. How to gain insureed rulings is little carry. Moreover, to get the globe, we must animadvert round it, and it is un exculpated how we gain the thinkingls we use in thought or what assurance, if to separately unmatched, we squander that the centerings in which we virtuoso fall out up the worldusing our archetype s determinusine to ingredients that actu completelyy know.3. What be the limits of our con ladderledge? roughly aspects of the world whitethorn be at heart the limits of our thought further beyond the limits of our fellowship faced with competing descriptions of them, we atomic number 50 non live on which description is legitimate. round aspects of the world whitethorn flush be beyond the limits of our thought, so that we stub non form intelligible descriptions of them, let muchover dwell that a token description is true. The inconsistency amongst rationalists and empiricists primarily concerns the bet on question, catching the sources of our models and cognition. In round instances, their disagreement on this topic booster cables them to take into floor for conflicting responses to the spring(a) questions as well. They may disagree over the reputation of warrant or slightly the limits of our thought and association. Our nidus here leave al an giotensin-converting enzyme be on the competing rationalist and empiricist responses to the second question.1.1 freethinkingTo be a rationalist is to pull in at least bingle of ternion songs. The mistrust/ discount rate dissertation concerns how we become warranted in believing propositions in a picky(a) bow line of business. The misgiving/ signifi send wordce dissertation whatever propositions in a token subject argona, S, ar con run able-bodied by us by light tot completelyy still distincts ar chea circumvent by man deduced from intuited propositions. science is a form of rational insight. Intellectu entirelyy admirationing a proposition, we undecomposed see it to be true in near(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) a focus as to form a true, warranted public opinion in it. (As discussed in segment 2 below, the constitution of this judgementual seeing inescapably news report.) realty is a crop in which we derive conclusions from intuited premises by means of h anest teleph wholeness lines, unrivaleds in which the conclusion must be true if the premises argon true. We intuit, for example, that the weigh three is prime and that it is greater than devil. We accordingly deduce from this noesis that there is a prime number greater than two. scholarship and tax inference and thusly provide us with baffle a priori, which is to tran just the ticket companionship gained respectively of sense run by means of. We rout out m otherwise disparate fluctuations of the apprehension/Deduction dissertation by substituting different subject beas for the variable S. roughly rationalists take mathematics to be receiptable by intelligence and minus. more or less place honorable truths in this category. Some include metaphysical claims, much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) asthat graven count on exists, we take up free giveing, and our sound judgment and body atomic number 18 unmistakable kernels.The more(prenominal) propositions rationalists include within the take off of acquaintance and certainty, and the more disputed the truth of those propositions or the claims to k this instant them, the more radical their rationalism. Rationalists to a fault vary the forte of their view by adjusting their under(a)standing of warrant. Some take warranted beliefs to be beyond yet the slightest uncertainty and claim that apprehension and induction provide beliefs of this high epistemic status. Others furnish warrant more conservatively, rank as belief beyond a originable doubt, and claim that science and deduction provide beliefs of that caliber. Still a nonher dimension of rationalism depends on how its propvirtuosonts realize the connection surrounded by misgiving, on the genius hand, and truth, on the other. Some take misgiving to be inf every(prenominal)ible, claiming that whatever we intuit must be true. Others allow for the hypothesis of senseless intuited propositions. The second dissertation associated with rationalism is the subjective noesis dissertation. The essential cognition dissertation We ache cognition of m all truths in a incident subject bea, S, as region of our rational nature. Like the apprehension/Deduction dissertation, the unconditioned generate dissertation asserts the existence of cognition gained a priori, independently of bear. The dispute amidst them rests in the accomp severallying instinct of how this a priori friendship is gained. The cognition/Deduction dissertation cites bugger off and subsequent deductive conclude. The intrinsic noesis dissertation liberty chits our rational nature. Our born(p) acquaintance is not wise to(p) through all sense experience or cognizance and deduction. It is just take up of our nature. Experiences may creation a process by which we bring this association to consciousness, further the experiences do not provide us with the acquaintance itself. It has in several(prenominal) substance been with us all on. fit in to approximately rationalists, we gained the acquaintance in an earlier existence. According to others, theology provided us with it at creation. Still others produce it is social function of our nature through unconditioned(p) selection. We get different indications of the naive experience thesis by substituting different subject argonas for the variable S. erst again, the more subjects included within the range of the thesis or the more arguable the claim to r apiece noesis in them, the more radical the form of rationalism. Stronger and weaker empathiseings of warrant yield stronger and weaker variations of the thesis as well. The third base important thesis ofrationalism is the inseparable plan thesis. The naive purpose Thesis We founder rough of the models we employ in a incident subject argona, S, as part of our rational nature.According to the inherent model thesis, almost of our designs be not gained from experience. They ar part of our rational nature in much(prenominal) a way that, plot of ground sense experiences may instauration a process by which they atomic number 18 brought to consciousness, experience does not provide the concepts or determine the information they dribble. Some claim that the naive innovation thesis is entailed by the inseparable Knowledge Thesis a particular instance of fellowship shtup s insinuate be intrinsic if the concepts that ar tameed in the kn testify proposition be as well as inhering. This is Lockes position (1690, tidings of honor I, Chapter IV, Section 1, p. 91). Others, such as Carruthers, argue against this connection (1992, pp. 5354). The center and military strong suit of the nescient Concept thesis varies with the concepts claimed to be ingrained. The more a concept fronts removed(p) from experience and the moral operations we erect perform on experienc e the more plausibly it may be claimed to be ignorant. Since we do not experience hone triangles entirely do experience pains, our concept of the former is a more promising candidate for existence indwelling than our concept of the last mentioned. The experience/Deduction thesis, the Innate Knowledge thesis, and the Innate Concept thesis ar essential to rationalism to be a rationalist is to adopt at least one of them. Two other almost related theses are world-widely adoptive by rationalists, although one can sure as shooting be a rationalist without adopting either of them. The first is that experience cannot provide what we gain from apprehension. The indispensability of ground Thesis The experience we gain in subject area, S, by recognition and deduction, as well as the beliefs and instances of cognition in S that are inherent to us, could not render been gained by us through sense experience. The second is that intellect is superordinate to experience as a source of friendship. The Superiority of fence Thesis The fellowship we gain in subject area S by intuition and deduction or take on innately is A-one to any friendship gained by sense experience.How reason is brag privations news report, and rationalists submit offered different broadsheets. unity view, generally associated with Descartes (1628, Rules II and III, pp.14), is that what we know a priori is certain, beyond tear down the slightest doubt, while what we see, or even know, on the terms of sense experience is at least jolly uncertain. Another view, generally associated with Plato(Republic 479e-484c), locates the superiority of a priori knowledge in the endeavors know. What we know by reason alone, a Platonic form, say, is superior in an important metaphysical way, e.g. unchanging, without end, hone, a higher degree of world, to what we are awake(predicate) of through sense experience. Most forms of rationalism pick up notable commitments to other phi losophical positions. unrivaled is a commitment to the self-control of scepticism for at least some area of knowledge. If we claim to know some truths by intuition or deduction or to pitch some innate knowledge, we obviously reject scepticism with find to those truths. Rationalism in the form of the cognizance/Deduction thesis is as well as commit to epistemic foundationalism, the view that we know some truths without basing our belief in them on any others and that we then(prenominal) use this foundational knowledge to know more truths.1.2 charlatanismEmpiricists endorse the tick offing claim for some subject area. The sensationalism Thesis We have no source of knowledge in S or for the concepts we use in S other than sense experience. Empiricism more or less a particular subject rejects the corresponding version of the Intuition/Deduction thesis and Innate Knowledge thesis. Insofar as we have knowledge in the subject, our knowledge is a posteriori, dependent upon sens e experience. Empiricists as well retract the implication of the corresponding Innate Concept thesis that we have innate heads in the subject area. Sense experience is our un accompanied source of predilections. They reject the corresponding version of the Superiority of Reason thesis. Since reason alone does not give us any knowledge, it certainly does not give us superior knowledge. Empiricists generally reject the Indispensability of Reason thesis, though they requirement not. The Empiricism thesis does not entail that we have reflexional knowledge. It entails that knowledge can yet be gained, if at all, by experience. Empiricists may assert, as some do for some subjects, that the rationalists are correct to claim that experience cannot give us knowledge. The conclusion they peck from this rationalist lesson is that we do not know at all. I have nominated the basic claims of rationalism and empiricism so that each is congeneric to a particular subject area. Rationali sm and empiricism, so relativized, deal not conflict. We can be rationalists in mathematics or a particular area of mathematics and empiricists in all or some of the physical sciences.Rationalism and empiricism solitary(prenominal) conflict when develop to cover the same subject. Then the argue, Rationalism vs. Empiricism, is united. The particular that philosophers can be both rationalists and empiricists has implications for the classification schemes often sedulous in the history of philosophy, especially the one traditionally used to describe the Early raw Period of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries guide up to Kant. It is standard practice to crowd the major philosophers of this period as every rationalists or empiricists and to suggest that those under one heading lot a earthy agenda in opposition to those under the other. Thus, Descartes, de Spinoza and Leibniz are the Continental Rationalists in opposition to Locke, Berkeley and Hume, the British Empiricis ts. We should adopt such general classification schemes with caution. The views of the individual(a) philosophers are more subtle and complex than the mere(a) classification suggests. (See Loeb (1981) and Kenny (1986) for important discussions of this hitch.) Locke rejects rationalism in the form of any version of the Innate Knowledge or Innate Concept theses, but he nonetheless adopts the Intuition/Deduction thesis with regard to our knowledge of paragons existence. Descartes and Locke have remarkably mistakable views on the nature of our roots, even though Descartes takes many to be innate, while Locke ties them all to experience. The rationalist/empiricist classification also encourages us to face the philosophers on each side of the divide to have universalplace research programs in areas beyond epistemology. Thus, Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz are mistakenly seen as applying a reason-centered epistemology to a common metaphysical agenda, with each trying to improve on the efforts of the one before, while Locke, Berkeley and Hume are mistakenly seen as gradually rejecting those metaphysical claims, with each consciously trying to improve on the efforts of his predecessors.It is also important to note that the Rationalist/Empiricist banknote is not exhaustive of the viable sources of knowledge. iodin mogul claim, for example, that we can gain knowledge in a particular area by a form of forebode revelation or insight that is a product of n all reason nor sense experience. In short, when used carelessly, the labels rationalist and empiricist, as well as the slogan that is the championship of this essay, Rationalism vs. Empiricism, can retard sooner than advance our understanding. Nonetheless, an important grapple decent described as Rationalism vs. Empiricism is joined wheneverthe claims for each view are formulated to cover the same subject. What is maybe the most interesting form of the reach occurs when we take the relevant subject to b e truths n earlyish the international world, the world beyond our own school principals. A fully fledged rationalist with regard to our knowledge of the away world holds that some orthogonal world truths can and must be known a priori, that some of the radicals required for that knowledge are and must be innate, and that this knowledge is superior to any that experience could ever provide. The full-fledged empiricist some our knowledge of the immaterial world replies that, when it comes to the nature of the world beyond our own headings, experience is our sole source of information. Reason magnate inform us of the transaction among our ideas, but those ideas themselves can entirely be gained, and any truths about the orthogonal ingenuousness they re take can unaccompanied be known, on the basis of sense experience. This debate concerning our knowledge of the external world will generally be our principal(prenominal) heightensing in what follows.Historically, the rationalist/empiricist dispute in epistemology has all-embracing into the area of metaphysics, where philosophers are concerned with the basic nature of reality, including the existence of perfection and such aspects of our nature as freewill and the proportion between the mind and body. major(ip) rationalists (e.g., Descartes 1641) have presented metaphysical theories, which they have claimed to know by reason alone. Major empiricists (e.g. Hume 173940) have rejected the theories as either speculation, beyond what we can learn from experience, or plastered attempts to describe aspects of the world beyond the concepts experience can provide. The debate raises the issue of metaphysics as an area of knowledge. Kant puts the driving assumption all the way The very concept of metaphysics ensures that the sources of metaphysics cant be falsifiable. If something could be known through the senses, that would automatically show that it doesnt plump to metaphysics thats an upshot of the meaning of the word metaphysics. Its basic principles can never be taken from experience, nor can its basic concepts for it is not to be physical but metaphysical knowledge, so it must be beyond experience. 1783, Preamble, I, p. 7 The possibility then of metaphysics so tacit, as an area of pitying knowledge, hinges on how we try the rationalist/empiricist debate. The debate also extends into ethics. Some righteous objectivists (e.g., Ross 1930) take us to know some funda amiable objective chaste truths by intuition, while some moral skeptics,who reject such knowledge, (e.g., Mackie 1977) find the call down to a faculty of moral intuition utterly im arguable. More recently, the rationalist/empiricist debate has extended to discussions (e.g., Bealer 1999, and Alexander & Weinberg 2007) of the very nature of philosophical head to what extent are philosophical questions to be answered by appeals to reason or experience?2. The Intuition/Deduction ThesisThe Intuition/Deduction t hesis claims that we can know some propositions by intuition and still more by deduction. more empiricists (e.g., Hume 1748) have been willing to accept the thesis so long as it is restricted to propositions unaccompanied about the comparisons among our own concepts. We can, they agree, know by intuition that our concept of idol includes our concept of omniscience. well(p) by examining the concepts, we can cerebrally hairgrip that the one includes the other. The debate between rationalists and empiricists is joined when the former assert, and the latter(prenominal) deny, the Intuition/Deduction Thesis with regard to propositions that contain meaty information about the external world. Rationalists, such as Descartes, have claimed that we can know by intuition and deduction that deity exists and created the world, that our mind and body are distinct substances, and that the angles of a triangle bear upon two right angles, where all of these claims are truths about an externa l reality independent of our thought. much(prenominal) substantive versions of the Intuition/Deduction thesis are our concern in this section. One defense of the Intuition/Deduction thesis assumes that we know some substantive external world truths, adds an analysis of what knowledge requires, and concludes that our knowledge must final result from intuition and deduction.Descartes claims that knowledge requires evidence and that certainty about the external world is beyond what empirical grounds can provide. We can never be sure our centripetal impressions are not part of a dream or a massive, demon orchestrated, deception. Only intuition and deduction can provide the certainty need for knowledge, and, presumptuousness that we have some substantive knowledge of the external world, the Intuition/Deduction thesis is true. As Descartes tells us, all knowledge is certain and evident cognition (1628, Rule II, p. 1) and when we review all the actions of the intellect by means of w hich we are able to arrive at a knowledge of things with no fear of be mistaken,we avow only two intuition and deduction (1628, Rule III, p. 3). This line of melody is one of the least compelling in the rationalist arsenal. First, the assumption that knowledge requires certainty comes at a heavy cost, as it rules out so much of what we commonly take ourselves to know. Second, as many contemporary rationalists accept, intuition is not always a source of certain knowledge. The possibility of a cheater gives us a reason to doubt our intuitions as well as our empirical beliefs.For all we know, a deceiver might cause us to intuit off-key propositions, just as one might cause us to have intelligences of absent objects. Descartess real way of see this challenge in the Meditations is to argue that we can know with certainty that no such deceiver interferes with our intuitions and deductions. They are infallible, as god guarantees their truth. The problem, known as the Cartesian Cir cle, is that Descartess account of how we gain this knowledge begs the question, by attempting to deduce the conclusion that all our intuitions are true from intuited premises. Moreover, his account does not pair a remaining problem that he himself notes (1628, Rule VII, p. 7) Deductions of any appreciable continuance rely on our fallible memory. A more slick transmission line for the Intuition/Deduction thesis again assumes that we know some particular, external world truths, and then appeals to the nature of what we know, quite an than to the nature of knowledge itself, to argue that our knowledge must result from intuition and deduction. Leibniz (1704) tells us the following.The senses, although they are requisite for all our unfeigned knowledge, are not sufficient to give us the self-coloured of it, since the senses never give anything but instances, that is to say particular or individual truths. instantly all the instances which confirm a general truth, notwithstandi ng numerous they may be, are not sufficient to establish the public indispensability of this same truth, for it does not follow that what happened before will happen in the same way again. From which it appears that requirement truths, such as we find in refined mathematics, and particularly in arithmetic and geometry, must have principles whose proof does not depend on instances, nor consequently on the deposition of the senses, although without the senses it would never have occurred to us to think of them (1704, Preface, pp. 150151) Leibniz goes on to describe our numerical knowledge as innate, and his melody may be directed to tide over the Innate Knowledge Thesis rather than the Intuition/DeductionThesis.For our purposes here, we can relate it to the latter, however We have substantive knowledge about the external world in mathematics, and what we know in that area, we know to be inescapably true. Experience cannot warrant beliefs about what is unavoidably the case. Hence, experience cannot be the source of our knowledge. The shell explanation of our knowledge is that we gain it by intuition and deduction. Leibniz mentions logic, metaphysics and ethical motive as other areas in which our knowledge kindredly outstrips what experience can provide. Judgments in logic and metaphysics involve forms of necessity beyond what experience can post. Judgments in morals involve a form of obligation or appreciate that lies beyond experience, which only informs us about what is the case rather than about what ought to be. The strength of this joust varies with its examples of purported knowledge. Insofar as we focus on controversial claims in metaphysics, e.g. that idol exists, that our mind is a distinct substance from our body, the initial premise that we know the claims is less than compelling. Taken with regard to other areas, however, the parametric quantity idle has legs. We know a great deal of mathematics, and what we know, we know to be nec essarily true. None of our experiences warrants a belief in such necessity, and we do not search to base our knowledge on any experiences.The warrant that provides us with knowledge arises from an intellectual grasp of the propositions which is clearly part of our schooling. Similarly, we seem to have such moral knowledge as that, all other things being equal, it is amiss(p) to break a forestall and that pleasure is intrinsically good. No empirical lesson about how things are can warrant such knowledge of how they ought to be. This assembly line for the Intuition/Deduction Thesis raises additional questions which rationalists must answer. Insofar as they maintain that our knowledge of necessary truths in mathematics or elsewhere by intuition and deduction is substantive knowledge of the external world, they owe us an account of this form of necessity. Many empiricists stand ready to argue that necessity resides in the way we talk about things, not in the things we talk about (Q uine 1966, p. 174). Similarly, if rationalists claim that our knowledge in morals is knowledge of an objective form of obligation, they owe us an account of how objective determine are part of a world of apparently valueless facts. Perhaps most of all, rationalist defenders of the Intuition/Deduction thesis owe us an account of what intuition is and how itprovides warranted true beliefs about the external world.What is it to intuit a proposition and how does that act of intuition support a warranted belief? Their argument presents intuition and deduction as an explanation of assumed knowledge that cantthey saybe explained by experience, but such an explanation by intuition and deduction requires that we have a clear understanding of intuition and how it supports warranted beliefs. Metaphorical characterizations of intuition as intellectual grasping or seeing are not enough, and if intuition is some form of intellectual grasping, it appears that all that is grasped is relations amo ng our concepts, rather than facts about the external world. Moreover, any intellectual faculty, whether it be sense perception or intuition, provides us with warranted beliefs only if it is generally accepted. The reliability of sense perception stems from the causative connection between how external objects are and how we experience them. What accounts for the reliability of our intuitions regarding the external world? Is our intuition of a particular true proposition the outcome of some causal interaction between ourselves and some aspect of the world? What aspect? What is the nature of this causal interaction? That the number three is prime does not appear to cause anything, let alone our intuition that it is prime.These issues are made all the more force per unit area by the classic empiricist response to the argument. The answer is generally credited to Hume and aims with a division of all true propositions into two categories. both the objects of human reason or query may inbornly be separate into two kinds, to wit, Relations of Ideas, and Matters of Fact. Of the first are the sciences of Geometry, Algebra, and Arithmetic, and, in short, every affirmation which is either intuitively or demonstratively certain. That the public square of the hypotenuse is equal to the square of the two sides is a proposition which expresses a relation between these betokens. That three times five is equal to half of xxx expresses a relation between these numbers. Propositions of this kind are ascertainable by the mere operation of thought, without habituation on what is anywhere existent in the universe. Though there never were a circle or triangle in nature, the truths demonstrated by Euclid would forever restrain their certainty and evidence. Matters of fact, which are the second objects of human reason, are not ascertained in the same manner, nor is our evidence of their truth, however great, of a bid nature with theforegoing.The contrary of every bai liwick of fact is still possible, because it can never imply a contradiction in impairment and is conceived by the mind with the same expertness and distinctness as if ever so conformable to reality. (Hume 1748, Section IV, disunite 1, p. 40) Intuition and deduction can provide us with knowledge of necessary truths such as those found in mathematics and logic, but such knowledge is not substantive knowledge of the external world. It is only knowledge of the relations of our own ideas. If the rationalist shifts the argument so it appeals to knowledge in morals, Humes reply is to offer an analysis of our moral concepts by which such knowledge is through empirical observation gained knowledge of issuances of fact. Morals and criticism are not so watchly objects of the understanding as of try and sentiment. Beauty, whether moral or natural, is felt more properly than perceived. Or if we reason concerning it and endeavor to fix the standard, we regard a new fact, to wit, the gener al taste of mankind, or some other fact which may be the object of reasoning and inquiry. (Hume 1748, Section XII, Part 3, p. 173) If the rationalist appeals to our knowledge in metaphysics to support the argument, Hume denies that we have such knowledge. If we take in our hand any volumeof divinity or take metaphysics, for instancelet us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning touchstone or number? No. Does it contain any experi psychogenic reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. station it then to the flames, for it can contain secret code but sophistry and illusion. (Hume 1748, Section XII, Part 3, p. 173) An updated version of this general empiricist reply, with an increased tension on speech communication and the nature of meaning, is given in the twentieth-century by A. J. Ayers version of logical positivism.Adopting positivisms impediment speculation of meaning, Ayer assigns every cognitively meaty sentence to one of two categories either it is a tautology, and so true solely by virtue of the meaning of its terms and provides no substantive information about the world, or it is open to empirical verification. there is, then, no room for knowledge about the external world by intuition or deduction. There can be no a priori knowledge of reality. For the truths of tenuous reason, the propositions which we know to be valid independently of all experience, are so only in virtue of their lose of actual mental object By contrast empirical propositions are one and all hypotheses which may be substantiate or discredited in actual sense experience. Ayer 1952, pp. 86 9394 Therationalists argument for the Intuition/Deduction Thesis goes wrong(p) at the start, according to empiricists, by expect that we can have substantive knowledge of the external world that outstrips what experience can warrant. We cannot. This empiricist reply faces challenges of its own. Our knowledge of mathematics seems to be about something more than our own concepts. Our knowledge of moral judgments seems to concern not just how we feel or act but how we ought to behave. The general principles that provide a basis for the empiricist view, e.g. Humes overall account of our ideas, the impediment Principle of Meaning, are problematic in their own right. In versatile formulations, the bank check Principle fails its own test for having cognitive meaning. A careful analysis of Humes Inquiry, relative to its own principles, may require us to consign large sections of it to the flames. In all, rationalists have a strong argument for the Intuition/Deduction thesis relative to our substantive knowledge of the external world, but its success rests on how well they can answer questions about the nature and epistemic force of intuition made all the more pressing by the classic empiricist reply.3. The Innate Knowledge ThesisThe Innate Knowledge thesis joins the Intuition/Deduction thesis in asserting that we have a priori knowledge, but it does not offer intuition and deduction as the source of that knowledge. It takes our a priori knowledge to be part of our rational nature. Experience may trigger our sensibleness of this knowledge, but it does not provide us with it. The knowledge is already there. Plato presents an early version of the Innate Knowledge thesis in the Meno as the doctrine of knowledge by recollection. The doctrine is motivated in part by a riddle that arises when we attempt to explain the nature of inquiry. How do we gain knowledge of a theorem in geometry? We inquire into the matter. Yet, knowledge by inquiry seems impossible (Meno, 80d-e). We either already know the theorem at the start of our investigation or we do not. If we already have the knowledge, there is no place for inquiry. If we lack the knowledge, we entert know what we are desire and cannot recognize it when we find it. Either way we cannot gain knowledge of the theorem by inquiry. Yet, we do know some theorems. The doctrine of knowledge by recollection offers a resoluteness. When we inquire into the truth of a theorem, we both do and do not already know it. We have knowledge in the form of amemory gained from our instincts knowledge of the theorem prior to its union with our body. We lack knowledge in that, in our intellects unification with the body, it has forgotten the knowledge and now needs to recollect it. In learning the theorem, we are, in effect, re career what we already know. Plato famously illustrates the doctrine with an exchange between Socrates and a young buckle down, in which Socrates guides the slave from ignorance to numeral knowledge. The slaves experiences, in the form of Socrates questions and voices, are the juncture for his recollection of what he learned previously.Platos metaphysics provides additional support for the Innate Knowledge Thesis. Since our knowledge is of abstract, eternal Forms which clearly lie beyond our sensory experience, it is a priori. Contemporary supporters of Platos position are scarce. The initial paradox, which Plato describes as a trick argument (Meno, 80e), rings sophistical. The metaphysical assumptions in the solution need justification. The solution does not answer the basic question Just how did the slaves soul learn the theorem? The Intuition/Deduction thesis offers an equally, if not more, plausible account of how the slave gains knowledge a priori. Nonetheless, Platos position illustrates the kind of reasoning that has caused many philosophers to adopt some form of the Innate Knowledge thesis. We are confident that we know certain propositions about the external world, but there seems to be no adequate explanation of how we gained this knowledge short of saying that it is innate. Its glut is beyond what we presently gain in experience, as well as what we can gain by performing psychic operations on what experience provides. It does not seem to be based on an intuition or deduction. That it is innate in us app ears to be the vanquish explanation. Noam Chomsky argues along similar lines in presenting what he describes as a rationalist conception of the nature of language (1975, 129). Chomsky argues that the experiences available to language learners are far also sparse to account for their knowledge of their language. To explain language learnedness, we must assume that learners have an innate knowledge of a widely distributed grammar capturing the common loggerheaded structure of natural languages. It is important to note that Chomskys language learners do not know particular propositions describing a universal grammar.They have a set of innate capacities or dispositions which enable and determine their language development. Chomsky gives us a hypothesis of innate learningcapacities or structures rather than a theory of innate knowledge. His view does not support the Innate Knowledge thesis as rationalists have traditionally understood it. As one commentator puts it, Chomskys princi ples are innate neither in the sense that we are explicitly aware of them, nor in the sense that we have a disposition to recognize their truth as obvious under appropriate circumstances. And thus it is by no means clear that Chomsky is correct in seeing his theory as following the traditional rationalist account of the acquirement of knowledge (Cottingham 1984, p. 124). puppet Carruthers (1992) argues that we have innate knowledge of the principles of folk-psychology. Folk-psychology is a network of common-sense generalizations that hold independently of background or culture and concern the relationships of moral states to one some other, to the environment and states of the body and to mien (1992, p.115).It includes such beliefs as that pains tend to be caused by injury, that pains tend to prevent us from concentrating on tasks, and that perceptions are generally caused by the appropriate state of the environment. Carruthers notes the complexity of folk-psychology, along w ith its success in explaining our behavior and the fact that its explanations appeal to such unobservables as beliefs, desires, tints and thoughts. He argues that the complexity, universality, and depth of folk-psychological principles outstrips what experience can provide, especially to young baby birdren who by their fifth year already know a great many of them. This knowledge is also not the result of intuition or deduction folk-psychological generalizations are not seen to be true in an act of intellectual insight. Carruthers concludes, The problem concerning the childs acquisition of psychological generalizations cannot be solved, unless we suppose that much of folk-psychology is already innate, triggered locally by the childs experience of itself and others, rather than learned (1992, p. 121). Empiricists, and some rationalists, attack the Innate Knowledge thesis in two main ways. First, they offer accounts of how sense experience or intuition and deduction provide the knowl edge that is claimed to be innate. Second, they directly criticize the Innate Knowledge thesis itself.The classic rumor of this second line of attack is presented in Locke 1690. Locke raises the issue of just what innate knowledge is. Particular instances of knowledge are sibylline to be in our minds as part of ourrational make-up, but how are they in our minds? If the implication is that we all consciously have this knowledge, it is plainly false. Propositions often given as examples of innate knowledge, even such plausible candidates as the principle that the same thing cannot both be and not be, are not consciously accepted by children and those with severe cognitive limitations. If the point of calling such principles innate is not to imply that they are or have been consciously accepted by all rational beings, then it is hard to see what the point is. No proposition can be said to be in the mind, which it never yet knew, which it never yet was conscious of (1690, Book I, Chap ter II, Section 5, p. 61). Proponents of innate knowledge might respond that some knowledge is innate in that we have the capacitor to have it. That claim, while true, is of little interest, however. If the faculty of sagacious, be the natural impression contended for, all the truths a man ever comes to know, will, by this account, be every one of them, innate and this great point will amount to no more, but only an unconventional way of speaking which whilst it pretends to assert the contrary, says energy different from those, who deny innate principles.For nobody, I think, ever denied, that the mind was capable of knowing several truths (1690, Book I, Chapter II, Section 5, p. 61). Locke thus challenges defenders of the Innate Knowledge thesis to present an account of innate knowledge that allows their position to be both true and interesting. A narrow interpretation of innateness faces counterexamples of rational individuals who do not meet its conditions. A overgenerous i nterpretation implies that all our knowledge, even that clearly provided by experience, is innate. Defenders of innate knowledge take up Lockes challenge. Leibniz responds (1704) by sympathetic to an account of innateness in terms of natural potential to avoid Lockes dilemma. rent Peter Carruthers similar reply. We have historied that while one form of nativism claims (somewhat implausibly) that knowledge is innate in the sense of being present as such (or at least in propositional form) from birth, it might also be maintained that knowledge is innate in the sense of being innately obdurate to make its appearance at some stage in childhood. This latter thesis is surely the most plausible version of nativism. (1992, p. 51) Carruthers claims that our innate knowledge is determined through evolutionary selection (p. 111). phylogeny has resulted in our being determined to know certain things (e.g.principles of folk-psychology) at particular stages of our life, as part of our natural development.Experiences provide the occasion for our consciously believing the known propositions but not the basis for our knowledge of them (p. 52). Carruthers thus has a ready reply to Lockes counterexamples of children and cognitively special(a) persons who do not believe propositions claimed to be instances of innate knowledge. The former have not yet reached the proper stage of development the latter are persons in whom natural development has modest down (pp. 4950). A expert problem for the Innate Knowledge thesis remains, however. We know a proposition only if it is true, we believe it and our belief is warranted. Rationalists who assert the existence of innate knowledge are not just claiming that, as a matter of human evolution, Gods radiation diagram or some other factor, at a particular point in our development, certain sorts of experiences trigger our belief in particular propositions in a way that does not involve our learning them from the experiences. Their claim is even bolder In at least some of these cases, our empirically triggered, but not empirically warranted, belief is nonetheless warranted and so known. How can these beliefs be warranted if they do not gain their warrant from the experiences that cause us to have them or from intuition and deduction? Some rationalists think that a reliabilist account of warrant provides the answer. According to Reliabilism, beliefs are warranted if they are formed by a process that generally produces true beliefs rather than false ones. The true beliefs that constitute our innate knowledge are warranted, then, because they are formed as the result of a reliable belief-forming process.Carruthers maintains that Innate beliefs will count as known provided that the process through which they come to be innate is a reliable one (provided, that is, that the process tends to generate beliefs that are true) (1992, p. 77). He argues that natural selection results in the formation of some beliefs and is a tr uth-reliable process. An appeal to Reliabilism, or a similar causal theory of warrant, may well be the best way for rationalists to develop the Innate Knowledge thesis. They have a difficult row to hoe, however. First, such accounts of warrant are themselves preferably controversial. Second, rationalists must give an account of innate knowledge that maintains and explains the distinction between innate knowledge and a posteriori knowledge, and it is not clear that they will beable to do so within such an account of warrant. Suppose for the sake of argument that we have innate knowledge of some proposition, P.What makes our knowledge that P innate? To sharpen the question, what difference between our knowledge that P and a clear case of a posteriori knowledge, say our knowledge that something is red based on our current optic experience of a red table, makes the former innate and the latter not innate? In each case, we have a true, warranted belief. In each case, presumably, our be lief gains its warrant from the fact that it meets a particular causal condition, e.g., it is produced by a reliable process. In each case, the causal process is one in which an experience causes us to believe the proposition at hand (that P that something is red), for, as defenders of innate knowledge admit, our belief that P is triggered by an experience, as is our belief that something is red. The insight arse the Innate Knowledge thesis seems to be that the difference between our innate and a posteriori knowledge lies in the relation between our experience and our belief in each case. The experience that causes our belief that P does not contain the information that P, while our visual experience of a red table does contain the information that something is red. Yet, exactly what is the nature of this containment relation between our experiences, on the one hand, and what we believe, on the other, that is missing in the one case but present in the other? The nature of the exper ience-belief relation seems quite an similar in each. The causal relation between the experience that triggers our belief that P and our belief that P is contingent, as is the fact that the belief-forming process is reliable. The same is true of our experience of a red table and our belief that something is red.The causal relation between the experience and our belief is again contingent. We might have been so constructed that the experience we describe as being appeared to redly caused us to believe, not that something is red, but that something is hot. The process that takes us from the experince to our belief is also only contingently reliable. Moreover, if our experience of a red table contains the information that something is red, then that fact, not the existence of a reliable belief-forming process between the two, should be the reason why the experience warrants our belief. By challenge to Reliablism, or some other causal theory of warrant, rationalists may obtain a way t o explain how innate knowledge can be warranted. They still need to show how theirexplanation supports an account of the difference between innate knowledge and a posteriori knowledge.4. The Innate Concept ThesisAccording to the Innate Concept thesis, some of our concepts have not been gained from experience. They are instead part of our rational make-up, and experience simply triggers a process by which we consciously grasp them. The main concern motivating the rationalist should be familiar by now the content of some concepts seems to outstrip anything we could have gained from experience. An example of this reasoning is presented by Descartes in the Meditations. Descartes classifies our ideas as adventitious, invented by us, and innate. Adventitious ideas, such as a sensation of heat, are gained directly through sense experience. Ideas invented by us, such as our idea of a hippogriff, are created by us from other ideas we possess. Innate ideas, such as our ideas of God, of extend ed matter, of substance and of a perfect triangle, are placed in our minds by God at creation. Consider Descartess argument that our concept of God, as an infinitely perfect being, is innate. Our concept of God is not directly gained in experience, as particular tastes, sensations and mental interprets might be. Its content is beyond what we could ever construct by applying available mental operations to what experience directly provides.From experience, we can gain the concept of a being with finite amounts of various perfections, one, for example, that is finitely knowledgeable, muscular and good. We cannot however move from these empirical concepts to the concept of a being of infinite perfection. (I must not think that, just as my conceptions of rest and darkness are arrived at by negating movement and light, so my perception of the infinite is arrived at not by means of a true idea but by merely negating the finite, ternary Meditation, p. 94.) Descartes supplements this argu ment by another. not only is the content of our concept of God beyond what experience can provide, the concept is a prerequisite for our employment of the concept of finite perfection gained from experience. (My perception of the infinite, that is God, is in some way prior to my perception of the finite, that is myself. For how could I understand that I doubted or desiredthat is lacked somethingand that I was not all in all perfect, unless there were in me some idea of a more perfect being which enabled me to recognize my own defects by comparison, Third Meditation, p. 94). An empiricist response to thisgeneral line of argument is given by Locke (1690, Book I, Chapter IV, Sections 125, pp. 91107). First, there is the problem of explaining what it is for person to have an innate concept. If having an innate concept entails consciously entertaining it at present or in the past, then Descartess position is open to obvious counterexamples. puppyish children and people from other cultur es do not consciously entertain the concept of God and have not done so. Second, there is the objection that we have no need to appeal to innate concepts in the first place. Contrary to Descartes argument, we can explain how experience provides all our ideas, including those the rationalists take to be innate, and with just the content that the rationalists depute to them. Leibniz (1704) offers a rationalist reply to the first concern. Where Locke puts forth the image of the mind as a infinite tablet on which experience writes, Leibniz offers us the image of a satiate of stain, the veins of which determine what sculpted presages it will accept. This is why I have taken as an illustration a block of veined marble, rather than a wholly uniform block or whitened tablets, that is to say what is called tabula rasa in the language of the philosophers.For if the soul were like those blank tablets, truths would be in us in the same way as the figure of Hercules is in a block of marble , when the marble is completely indifferent whether it receives this or some other figure. But if there were veins in the stone which marked out the figure of Hercules rather than other figures, this stone would be more determined thereto, and Hercules would be as it were in some manner innate in it, although labour would be needed to uncover the veins, and to clear them by polishing, and by cutting away what prevents them from appearing. It is in this way that ideas and truths are innate in us, like natural inclinations and dispositions, natural habits or potentialities, and not like activities, although these potentialities are always accompanied by some activities which correspond to them, though they are often imperceptible. (1704, Preface, p. 153) Leibnizs fiction contains an insight that Locke misses. The mind plays a affair in determining the nature of its content. This point does not, however, require the adoption of the Innate Concept thesis.Rationalists have responded t o the second part of the empiricist attack on the Innate Concept thesisthe empricists claim that the thesis is without basis, as all our ideas can be explained as derived from experienceby focusing on difficulties in the empiricistsattempts to give such an explanation. The difficulties are illustrated by Lockes account. According to Locke, experience consists in external sensation and inner reflection. whole our ideas are either frank or complex, with the former being received by us passively in sensation or reflection and the latter being built by the mind from simple materials through various mental operations. rightly at the start, the account of how simple ideas are gained is open to an obvious counterexample acknowledged, but then set aside, by Hume in presenting his own empiricist theory. Consider the mental image of a particular creep of blue. If Locke is right, the idea is a simple one and should be passively received by the mind through experience.Hume points out otherw ise. Suppose therefore a person to have enjoyed his sight for thirty years and to have become perfectly acquainted with colors of all kinds, yet one particular shade of blue, for instance, which it never has been his fortune to meet with let all the different shades of that color, except that single one, be placed before him, go down gradually from the deepest to the lightest, it is plain that he will perceive a blank where that shade is wanting and will be sensible that there is a greater quad in that place between the coterminous colors than in any other. right off I ask whether it be possible for him, from his own imagination, to supply this deficiency and raise up to himself the idea of that particular shade, though it had never been conveyed to him by his senses? I believe there are but a couple of(prenominal) will be of the opinion that he can (1748, Section II, pp. 2930) regular(a) when it comes to such simple ideas as the image of a particular shade of blue, the mind is more than a blank slate on which experience writes. Consider too our concept of a particular color, say red. Critics of Lockes account have pointed out the weaknesses in his explanation of how we gain such a concept by the mental operation of abstraction on individual cases. For one thing, it makes the incorrect assumption that various instances of a particular concept share a common feature. Carruthers puts the objection as follows. In fact problems arise for empiricists even in connection with the very simplest concepts, such as those of colour. For it is false that all instances of a given colour share some common feature.In which case we cannot teach the concept of that colour by abstracting the common feature of our experience. Thus consider the concept red. Do all shades of red have something in common? If so, what? It is surely false that individual shadesof red consist, as it were, of two distinguishable elements a general redness together with a particular shade. Rathe r, redness consists in a continuous range of shades, each of which is only just distinguishable from its neighbors. Acquiring the concept red is a matter of learning the extent of the range. (1992, p. 59) For another thing, Lockes account of concept acquisition from particular experiences seems circular. As it stands, however, Lockes account of concept acquisition appears viciously circular. For noticing or attending to a common feature of various things presupposes that you already possess the concept of the feature in question. (Carruthers 1992, p. 55) Consider in this regard Lockes account of how we gain our concept of causation. In the notice that our senses take of the invariable novelty of things, we cannot but observe, that several particulars, both qualities and substances begin to exist and that they receive this their existence from the cod act and operation of some other being.From this observation, we get our ideas of cause and effect. (1690, Book II, Chapter 26, Sec tion 1, pp. 292293) We get our concept of causation from our observation that some things receive their existence from the application and operation of some other things. Yet, we cannot make this observation unless we already have the concept of causation. Lockes account of how we gain our idea of power displays a similar circularity. The mind being every day informed, by the senses, of the alteration of those simple ideas, it observes in things without and winning notice how one comes to an end, and ceases to be, and another begins to exist which was not before reflecting also on what passes within itself, and observing a invariant change of its ideas, sometimes by the impression of outward objects on the senses, and sometimes by the determination of its own choice and conclude from what it has so changelessly observed to have been, that the like changes will for the future be made in the same things, by like agents, and by the like ways, considers in one thing the possibility of having any of its simple ideas changed, and in another the possibility of making that change and so comes by that idea which we call power. (1690, Chapter XXI, Section 1, pp. 219220) We come by the idea of power though considering the possibility of changes in our ideas made by experiences and our own choices. Yet, to consider this possibilityof some things making a change in otherswe must already have a concept of power.One way to meet at least some of thesechallenges to an empiricist account of the origin of our concepts is to revise our understanding of the content of our concepts so as to bring them more in line with what experience will clearly provide. Hume famously takes this approach. Beginning in a way reminiscent of Locke, he distinguishes between two forms of mental table of contents or perceptions, as he calls them impressions and ideas. Impressions are the contents of our current experiences our sensations, feelings, emotions, desires, and so on. Ideas are mental con tents derived from impressions. Simple ideas are copies of impressions complex ideas are derived from impressions by compounding, transposing, augmenting or diminishing them. Given that all our ideas are thus gained from experience, Hume offers us the following rule for determining the content of any idea and thereby the meaning of any term taken to express it.When we entertain, therefore, any indecision that a philosophical term is employed without any meaning or idea (as is but too frequent), we need but inquire from what impression is that supposed idea derived? And if it be impossible to assign any, this will confirm our suspicion. (1690, Section II, p. 30) Using this test, Hume draws out one of the most important implications of the empiricists demur of the Innate Concept thesis. If experience is hence the source of all ideas, then our experiences also determine the content of our ideas. Our ideas of causation, of substance, of right and wrong have their content determined by the experiences that provide them. Those experiences, Hume argues, are unable to support the content that many rationalists and some empiricists, such as Locke, attribute to the corresponding ideas. Our softness to explain how some concepts, with the contents the rationalists attribute to them, are gained from experience should not lead us to adopt the Innate Concept thesis. It should lead us to accept a more contain view of the contents for those concepts, and thereby a more limited view of our ability to describe and understand the world. Consider, for example, our idea of causation.Descartes takes it to be innate. Locke offers an apparently circular account of how it is gained from experience. Humes empiricist account soberly limits its content. Our idea of causation is derived from a feeling of expectation rooted in our experiences of the constant conjunction of similar causes and effects. It appears, then, that this idea of a necessary connection among events arises from a number of similar instances whichoccur, of the constant conjunction of these events nor can that idea ever be suggested by any one of these instances surveyed in all possible lights and positions. But there is nonentity in a number of instances, different from every single instance, which is supposed to be exactly similar, except only that after a repetition of similar instances the mind is carried by habit, upon the appearance of one event, to expect its public attendant and to believe that it will exist. This connection, therefore, which we feel in the mind, this customary intonation of the imagination from one object to its usual attendant, is the sentiment or impression from which we form the idea of power or necessary connection. (1748, Section VII, Part 2, p. 86) The source of our idea in experience determines its content.Suitably to this experience, therefore, we may define a cause to be an object followed by another, and where all the objects, similar to the first are f ollowed by objects similar to the second We may, therefore, suitably to this experience, form another definition of cause and call it an object followed by another, and whose appearance always conveys the thought of the other. (1748, Section VII, Part 2, p. 87) Our claims, and any knowledge we may have, about causal connections in the world turn out, given the limited content of our empirically based concept of causation, to be claims and knowledge about the constant conjunction of events and our own feelings of expectation. Thus, the initial disagreement between rationalists and empiricists about the source of our ideas leads to one about their content and thereby the content of our descriptions and knowledge of the world. Like philosophical debates generally, the rationalist/empiricist debate ultimately concerns our position in the world, in this case our position as rational inquirers. To what extent do our faculties of reason and experience support our attempts to know and under stand our situation.